Learning and Instruction: Constructivism
In her chapter on constructivism Driscoll (2005) explains that constructivism is not a single theory but draws its roots from multiple psychologists and philosophers including Brunet, Vygotsky and Piaget. In fact constructivism is one of many labels for this collection of theories that can also be referred to as constructionist and embodied cognition (among other names).
Driscoll explains several assumptions that are common to all these theories (which we will refer to as constructivism). Constructivist assumptions about learning include:
- Knowledge is “constructed by learners in an attempt to make sense of their experiences.” (p. 387)
- Conflicting experiences will require reconstruction
- Constructions do not necessarily have to reflect the truth about the world in order to be useful
- Learners will test their own understanding against the understanding of others
Driscoll goes on to identify several learning goals of constructivism, which include:
- Learning must occur in context; therefore, a meaningful learning environment must be created
- Learners should know that learning develops and changes throughout their lives
- Development of personal inquiry skills
- Learners should define and pursue their own learning goals
- Self regulation of one’s learning
- Educators need to coach learners that lack adequate learning skills
Considering constructivist assumptions about learning and constructivist learning goals Driscoll identifies five constructivist conditions for learning.
Embed learning in complex, realistic, and relevant environments
Schoenfeld (as cited in Driscoll) found students that only experience simple problems often give up on more complicated and realistic problems. By preparing students through complex problems students are more likely to pursue alternatives and construct better understanding of subject matter.
Provide for social negotiation as an integral part of learning
Constructivists believe that social negotiation and collaboration are important to higher mental processes and as such become a critical feature in learning. Collaboration means using dialogue to understand a view other than one’s own (resulting in construction of a cultural understanding rather than an egocentric viewpoint). Learning through collaboration best occurs through cooperation and dialogue as opposed to dividing up work amongst group members. (An excellent example of this can be seen here)
Support multiple perspectives and the use of multiple modes of representation
Approaching a problem from a single perspective tends to lead to oversimplification or misunderstanding of content. Approaching problems from multiple perspectives provides for a stronger knowledge base. In using multiple modes of representation learners can appreciate a subject in different ways and incorporate different sensory modes thereby increasing understanding.
Encourage ownership in learning
Although student ownership of learning is not an idea that began with constructivism; however, the idea that the student should play a primary role in determining their own learning needs and deciding how to best pursue these needs is. This has led to discussion by critics of constructivism as to whether or not students are ready to take a decisive role in how they learn as they believe students will often take the quickest route rather than the route that is best for their learning. Constructivists argue that students possess the metacognitive skills to determine the appropriate route to learning and it is up to the teacher to take on the role of coach and provide the students with the guidance to make appropriate decisions. They argue that students have trouble making appropriate decisions because learning often lacks context and providing students with this context will improve learning related decision making.
Nurture self-awareness of the knowledge construction process
By encouraging learners to be self-aware of their thinking processes and knowledge construction (metacognition) learners develop better cognitive strategies. Driscoll introduces and describes reflexivity as a critical attitude present in learners. She explains that reflexivity allows learners to be critical of their constructions thereby allowing expansion of a learner’s worldview. In being critical of one’s own construction learners are encouraged to view content from different perspectives (see above).
Driscoll goes on to describe several constructivist modes of instruction but these are covered by us elsewhere. Driscoll summarizes the chapter by reminding us that constructivism is a collection of approaches rather than a single theory. She goes on to say that as of yet there is little empirical evidence to support the claims of constructivists. She does however identify several constructivist approaches that are supported by literature. These include encouragement of active learners, learning by doing, striving for understanding, and social interaction between learners.
Reference
Driscoll, M.P. (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (pp. 384-407; Ch. 11 – Constructivism). Toronto, ON: Pearson.