Introduction: What is Ecotourism?

Posted on April 4, 2012 by jaynes

I have always had an interest in the concept behind ecotourism. The idea of fusing tourism and conservation, and producing a economically and environmentally sustainable organization seems like a long term solution to the difficulties of making reserves, particularly in a world that prioritizes economic over intrinsic value. I also have a fasination with nature, and hope to visit some of these ecotourism locations I researched one day.

My curiosity in this subject was also founded in my plans to travel and work in South Africa this summer. I’m working with an organization called “Cheetah Outreach”, which is an “education and community-based programme created to raise awareness of the plight of the cheetah and to campaign for its survival.”.

A 9 month old cub on grounds of Cheetah Outreach, where I will be working this summer!

After receiving this internship, I became increasingly interested in different ecotourism projects and their design, and then decided it would be a great topic for my paper!

But what exactly is ecotourism?

Ecotourism, by definition of the Ecotourism Association of Australia, is….

“Ecologically sustainable tourism with a primary focus on experiencing natural areas that fosters environmental and cultural understanding, appreciation and conservation.”

What are some examples of ecotourism? My paper focuses mainly on the theory of ecotourism, but ecotourism can range from going on a tour through Kruger National Park in South Africa (pictured below) to turtle watching on the Osa Peninsula in Costa Rica.

A Giraffe crossing the road in Kruger National Park. The park offers several guided safari trips, several of which are overnight. It also acts as protected reservation for several populations of species such as lions, African buffalo, elephants, hyenas, and many more.

The rest of this site will give an overview of ecotourism, with a few examples. The different categories of history,values, regulation, economics, and biological knowledge can be browsed by simply scrolling down the page, or clicking the different tabs under the “Menu” label.

History

Posted on April 4, 2012 by jaynes

The proposal for fusing conservation and tourism was first contrived by Budowski in 1976, and the term ‘ecotourism’ emerged shortly after in the late 1980’s (Orams 1995). The negative impacts of mass tourism on the environment was just being realized, and in order to sustain their livelihood tourist companies were beginning to explore tourism management options and the concept of “eco-friendly” tourism (Jamal et al 2006). The idea was largely supported by the public, who expressed significant interest in experiencing pristine natural habitats that were continually protected from exploitation and degradation (Orams 1995). The sequential development can be seen below in Figure 1.

Figure 1: The chronological development of the concept of sustainable tourism and ecotourism. Adapted from Swarbrooke (1999).

Several major factors led to the rise of ecotourism. As seen in Figure 2, the desire to forge relationships between several major ideas and concepts resulted in the conception of ecotourism (Jamal et al 2006). Sustainable funding for conservation was primary motive for ecotourism, however ecotourism planners and researchers quickly realized the diversity and number of stakeholders affected by ecotourism (Jamal et al 2006). Thus, a more comprehensive definition of ecotourism was formed, the components of which can be seen in Figure 2 (Jamal et al 2006).

Figure 2: The major components influencing the rise of ecotourims (Jamal et al 2006)

The World Ecotourism Summit in 2002 narrowed ecotourism down to 8 postulates that are currently utilized today. Crabtree et al (2002) noted that outcome of the summit conference were the views that ecotourism should:

have a natural area focus that ensures visitors have the opportunity to personally and directly experience nature;

provide interpretation or educational services that give visitors the opportunity to experience nature in ways that lead to greater understanding, appreciation and enjoyment;

represent best practice in ecological sustainability practices;

contribute to conservation of natural areas and cultural heritage;

provide ongoing contributions to the local community;

respect and be sensitive to the culture/s existing in the area;

consistently meet consumer expectations; and

be marketed and promoted honestly and accurately so that realistic expectations are formed.

The formation of these fundamentals was a significant advancement within ecotoursim, as it eventually produced the International Ecotourism Standard, a standardized definition of ecotourism that was distributed and recognized world wide (Crabtree et al 2002).

Values of Ecotourism

Posted on April 4, 2012 by jaynes

The central values within ecotourism can be divided between two categories: humanitarian and ecological. The humanitarian side involves the people who are invested and affected by ecotourism—tourists, non-government organizations (NGOs), researchers, various industries, the local community, and many more. The ecological category consists of the environment and its associated species that are directly affected by the ecotourism.

The humanitarian values of ecotourism revolve around the individual groups of people who are highly impacted by the presence of ecotourism. The fundamentals promote education, understanding, and respect for all parties involved. Collaboration among the major stakeholders is also necessary for success and sustainability of the ecotourism project (Gossling 1999. Wight 1993). The long-term benefits to the affected parties should be an additional intrinsic humanitarian value (Wight 1993). This includes benefits to the company, the tourists, the researchers, and surrounding community, all of which should be equally important when establishing the value system of an ecotourism complex.

Children of Welverdiend, a South African village just outside of Kruger National Park. (Kneidel 2007)

The ecological values of ecotourism are prioritizing the preservation of quality habitat, species, and ecosystem functioning. Wight (1993) outlined several major fundamentals of ecotourism surrounding measures for design, development, implementation, and management of areas used for ecotourism. First, she stated that the implementation of the ecotourism location should not modify the traits of the area or compromise the quality of the habitat, by thoroughly understanding the limitations and sensitivity of the habitat (Wight 1993). Though most ecotourism causes some negative effects, the valuation of the integrity and complexity of the ecosystem allows for ecotourism to conserve habitat effectively.

The degree these ecological fundamentals are implemented within the ecotourism enterprise can vary drastically. The implementation spans from passive to active ecotourism. Passive ecotourism aims for the enjoyment and appreciation for nature while minimizing human impact and maintaining its integrity (Oram 1995). Active ecotourism encourages an enjoyment of nature coupled with direct involvement in conservation and management to ensure longevity and maintain the systems integrity (Oram 1995). Figure 3 illustrates these two poles and the associated ecotourism actions.

Figure 3: The spectrum of passive to active ecotourism. Adapted from Miller and Kaae

In order for ecotourism of any degree to be successful, a concrete definition of the ecotourism implemented is necessary, as well as transparency within the company and precise indicators of success (Oram 1995). Creating a public value system and a procedure for evaluating progress within an ecotourism reserve is integral for success.

Regulations of Ecotourism

Posted on April 4, 2012 by jaynes

There is a significant need for global cohesiveness within ecotourism regulation and certification. Currently there are 104 “environmentally-friendly” labeling and certification programs within the tourism industry alone, and more are continually emerging (Medina 2005). Many stakeholders throughout the ecotourism industry are pushing for a standardized certification, as the numerous ecolabels have resulted in uncertainty amongst consumers (Medina 2005).

Quebec World Ecotourism Summit in 2002 several possibilities for this singular international certification program were explored (Crabtree et al 2002). The certification would have to be general enough to apply globally to a wide variety of ecosystems, yet still be applicable to local and regional systems (Crabtree et al 2002). Crabtree et al (2002) defined the essential postulates this certification program as:

Ecofriendly processes and performances

Quantifiable indicators that reflect a high functioning ecosystem, and require a ecotourism organization to compare their initiative against an ideal standard

Standards that are well-researched and realistic, and multi-faceted to accommodate the diversity within ecotourism

Regular evaluation to ensure standards are maintained within an ecotourism company

Different branches of the program to allow for some specificity, such as accommodations, tours, and attractions

High credibility through third-party evaluation, periodic review of criteria, and incentives for improvement.

Since 2002, these postulates have been distributed and implemented world wide as the International Ecotourism Standard (IES). Many ecotourism companies have based their specific value system on these concepts, and the IES label has become a recognized certification among ecotourists (Jamal et al 2008).

Despite these substantial improvements, Jamal et al (2008) note that further improvements to standard are necessary, particularly regarding socio-economic considerations and incorporation of them throughout the certification. Certification within ecotourism has developed and improved dramatically, however continual research and modification is necessary to accommodate the variant and evolving traits of ecotourism.

Economics of Ecotourism

Posted on April 4, 2012 by jaynes

There are several stakeholders that are consistently affected and impacted by the economics of ecosystem. These parties are primarily the ecotourism company, the tourists, and the local community. The economic dilemma surrounding ecotourism is to what extent the reserve area can be altered to accommodate tourists without substantially degrading the habitat (Muller 2000). There is always a fine balance between profit and conservation, each which cannot survive without the other. There are numerous economic benefits of ecotourism, such as the economic revenues received by the individuals and government agencies providing tourism services, employment of the individuals involved in developing and maintaining the reserve, and a portion of the revenues is often received by the surrounding community (Muller 2000). As seen in Figure 4, the economic gain from ecotourism is usually distributed among the several stakeholders, and can have far reaching positive economic effects.

Figure 4: The flow of money spent by a consumer for a standard ecotourism package.

Ecotourism also provides many job opportunities, ranging from tour operators, transportation services, hotel and lodging operators, food and entertainment providers, tax revenues and entrance fees, many of which also provide stability and income for the local community (Muller 2000). These economic gains are why companies and countries often choose to invest in ecotourism.

Ecotourism Biological Effects

Posted on April 4, 2012 by jaynes

Whether ecotourism actually aids in the conservation of endemic and threatened species has been highly debated. Many argue that the impacts of tourism are too detrimental and intrusive to allow for populations to proliferate, particularly in regards to sensitive and rare species (Kurger 2005, Isaacs 2000). Case studies of ecotourism have revealed both positive and negative effects.

An example of a positive effect was seen in Nevin and Gilbert (2005) in their study on brown bears within British Columbia. They observed the effects of ecotourism on the demographics of brown bears. They noted that human presence from ecotourism resulted in a displacement of large males, but not subordinate males, females, or cubs (Nevin and Gilbert 2005).

Three brown bears examining a stream in hopes of catching some fish.

This created refuge and increased feeding opportunities for subordinate age and sex classes (Nevin and Gilbert 2005). These opportunities were hypothesized to potentially increase population productivity due to the strong positive correlation between mean female mass and litter size (Nevin and Gilbert 2005). Improvement from past management strategies, and unexpected positive outcomes of ecotourism have allowed for positive impacts within ecosystems beyond initial conservation goals.

Common negative effects of ecotourism were frequently related to stress, increased susceptibility to disease, and decreased biological functioning. A specific example of this is the Amazonian Lake hoatzins (Opisthocomus hoazin) pictured below, who had significantly lower chick survival rate in nesting areas exposed to tourists, as well as lower average body weight and a stronger hormonal response rate to stress stimulus than unexposed birds (Müllner et al 2004).

The Amazonian Lake hoatzins (Opisthocomus hoazin), who in ecotoursim reserves in Costa Rica has been negatively effected by the presence of ecotourism.

Conclusion

Posted on April 4, 2012 by jaynes

Ecotourism is a unique endeavor that altered conservation efforts in numerous ways. The idea of fusing conservation and ecotourism aims for benefits for all stakeholders, however as revealed above, in order for this to be effective concrete values, regulation systems, economic plans, and evaluation of biological effects must be established and maintained. Ecotourism is an innovative approach to sustainable and profitable conservation and hopefully with further research and refinement ecotourism will grow in success.

References

Posted on April 4, 2012 by jaynes

Crabtree, A., O’Reilly, P. and G. Worboys. 2002. Sharing expertise in ecotourism certification: developing an International Ecotourism Standard. WORLD ECOTOURISM SUMMIT – Quebec
Gossling, S. 1999. Ecotourism: a means to safeguard biodiversity and ecosystem functions? Ecological Economics (29):303–320
Isaacs, J.C. 2000. The limited potential of ecotourism to contribute to wildlife conservation. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 28(1):61–66
Jamal, T., Borges, M., and A. Stronza. 2006. The Institutionalisation of Ecotourism: Certification, Cultural Equity and Praxis. Journal of Ecotourism. 5(3):145-175
Kneidel, S. An African Village Seeking Solutions. Retrived April 4th 2012 from http://veggierevolution.blogspot.ca/2007/08/welverdiend-african-village-seeking.html
Medina, L.K. 2005. Ecotourism and Certification: Confronting the Principles and Pragmatics of Socially Responsible Tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 13(3): 281-297
Müller, F.G. 2000. Ecotourism: an economic concept for ecological sustainable tourism. International Journal of Environmental Studies. 57(3):241-251
Nevin, O.T. and B.K. Gilbert. 2005. Perceived risk, displacement and refuging in brown bears: positive impacts of ecotourism? Biological Conservation. 121(4): 611-622
Orams, M. 1995. Towards a more desirable form of ecotourism. Tourism Management 16(1):3-8
Weinberg, A., Bellows, S., and D. Ekster. 2002. Sustaining Ecotourism: Insights and Implications from Two Successful Case Studies. Society & Natural Resources: An International Journal. 15(4):371-380
Wight, P. 1993. Ecotourism: Ethics or Eco-Sell. Journal of Travel Research 31:3-9