New York is a densely populated city of nearly 9 million people as of 2014 (NYC Planning, 2014) and providing heating and energy for all inhabitants of the city is a challenging issue, where many social factors and struggles of environmental justice come into play, making it a ‘wicked problem.’ The main problem in the city surrounding heating is the burning of tar-like No.6 oil, which is the leading cause of soot accumulation in the city (Mayors Office of Sustainability, 2015) and causes increased air pollution, which is linked to both increased risk of cardiovascular disease (Haley et al, 2009) and is particularly dangerous for those with asthma in ethnic minority areas (Garg et al, 2003) with low socioeconomic status (Mortimer et al, 2002). There are a number of stakeholders involved in this issue, such as the local government, tenants, landlords and environmentalists, however not all of these groups have equal power over decisions regarding resource management. I will outline who the key decision makers are in this issue, how they form policies and if they engage in good governance practice by considering the impact of policies on all of the stakeholders involved.
The key decision maker regarding New York City’s heating problems is the local government, as they are the ones able to implement local policy around the use of No.6 oil. The City of New York developed local law 43 to tackle this through the NYC Clean Heat program in 2012, with the main policy being the phasing out of No.6 oil by July 1st 2015, and anyone continuing to burn No.6 oil past the deadline would be subject to fines (NYC Clean Heat). The Environmental Department of the New York City council argues that this is the ‘biggest step’ to improving New York City’s air quality over the next 20 years (Sklerov, 2011). However, it is argued elsewhere (Frost, 2015) that many buildings are continuing to burn No.6 oil illegally past the deadline. To tackle this, through the Clean Heat Program the Environmental Department has implemented a ‘spot the soot’ map, which shows what buildings are in violation of local law 43. Along with imposing sanctions by issuing fines, this map holds tenants accountable for continuing to misuse resources through ‘dirty’ heating methods, both of which are examples of good governance (Darby, 2010). Furthermore, the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation has issued guidance for landlords who have boilers installed which burn No.6 oil, in particular how to switch boilers or reuse them with cleaner heating methods (NYSDEC, 2015). This shows the local government provides transparency around the issue to ensure landlords are clear about new rules and how to avoid violating local law 43.
Heat Seek NYC is an informal institution which aims to help tenants have access to heating throughout the winter by encouraging landlords to heat their buildings more effectively whilst reducing running costs. They install sensors in homes which collect data used to map heating abuse claims. This is an example of good governance as it holds the landlord accountable for not providing adequate heating. Furthermore, they aim to create transparency around heating regulations, an example of good governance (Darby, 2010), in order to reduce tensions between landlords and tenants, and with the goal to inform housing policy.
As defined by Darby (2010), good governance involves participation of the citizens that the resource management policy will affect, however gives no guarantee that their opinions will shape policy. Many locals in ethnic minority and low income areas have expressed concerns about the soot accumulation on and inside buildings and the detrimental health effects this can have, especially for children, elderly and asthma sufferers (Gregory, 2014). Velez (2013) argues that people in ethnic minority communities feel that issues surrounding the environment are ‘liberal white issues.’ This shows that the key decision maker, the local government, has not allowed those in poorer areas to express their concerns over resource management and air pollution, showing they do not consider all citizens as major stakeholders in this issue.
The concern that many people in ethnic minority areas have around heating and soot accumulation in their home is addressed on a global level by the World Health Organisation (2014), who have issued guidelines for policy makers to recognise that pollutants from household heating can lead to health risks and climate change, and provide help for implementation of these guidelines. Although these are not official policy or law, it is hoped that local and national governments will use these recommendations and take advantage of the WHO’s implementation assistance.
It is estimated to cost around $5000-$17000 to change a boiler from one that burns No.6 oil to one which uses cleaner natural gas (Gregory, 2014). This cost is placed firmly on the landlord, who is subject to fines if they continue to use No.6 oil after the deadline has passed. Although the local government argues that they are committed to reducing air pollution in New York City and therefore managing resources in an environmentally centred way, they are relying on the population to share this view of resource management by placing the onus of payment on them. This therefore makes the landlord a key decision maker in resource management around the use of No.6 oil.
Although the local government’s main policy around creating cleaner heat is relying on landlords to change their boilers, the Department of Environmental Protection and Department of Buildings have set up incentives to encourage landlords to switch from using old-fashioned No.6 burning boilers to boilers which produce a cleaner heat. This includes landlords only having to submit one form to both departments to obtain a permit change their boiler, which reduces design costs by up to 80% (Sklerov, 2011), and reducing time taken to obtain a permit. These incentives have been set up to encourage landlords to make the switch and encouraging them that boilers that burn cleaner oil will result in cheaper running costs. However, this is not great enough to encourage landlords to make such a large investment, as for many landlords profit comes before environmental sustainability. I would therefore argue that policy makers should aim to change people’s attitudes towards heating methods and air quality, with the outcome that landlords and tenants understand that their health and the environment will be greatly improved by making the switch to cleaner heating methods.
There are also national regulations around resource management and its impact on air quality in the US. The US Environmental Protection Agency is an agency of the United States Federal Government which writes policies and regulations when congresses passes an environmental law (US EPA, 2015). The Clean Air Act of 1970 was set up to protect public health and welfare, and in order to do this the EPA is required to set air quality standards (US EPA, 2015). The EPA’s guidelines on Improving Air Quality Through Land Use Activities (2001) was written in compliance with the Clean Air Act, and provides guidance for air quality planners on how to create a cleaner, healthier environment. However, although these recommendations for resource management are encouraged to be adopted by local governments, in compliance with the Clean Air Act, the application of these land use changes is voluntary and it is down to the local governments to decide if they wish to implement them.
In conclusion, although there are policies set up regarding appropriate resource management and tackling air pollution at local government level such as the NYC Clean Heat Program, at national level with the EPA Guidance of Improving Air Quality Through Land Use Activities and the Clean Air Act and at global level with the WHO’s Guidelines on Heating and Indoor Air Quality, there is poor governance of resources in the most poverty stricken ethnic minority areas of New York, shown by the lack of participation in resource management with people in these areas. Due to this lack of participation, having a ‘green’ community is never in the top priorities of those in poorer area, but health is a big issue they identify. There must be more done to mobilise New York citizens in ethnic minority areas to participate in the governance of resources as this is strongly connected to their health, a key issue identified in communities for improvement (Velez, 2013).
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