Annotated Bibliography
Peer Reviewed References
Kinney, P. Chillrud, S. Ross, J. Spengler, J. Ramstrom, S. 2002. Exposures to multiple air toxics in New York City. Environmental Health Perspectives. Volume 110. Supplement 4.
This source is a research article co-written by 5 academics for the journal Environmental Health Perspective. Patrick Kinney works at Mailman school of public health, Steven Chillrud and James Ross are from Columbia University and John D. Spengler and Sonja Ramstrom work at Harvard University.
The article analyses the correlation between public health defects and air toxic pollutants in major cities, specifically looking at the levels of air pollution around a public school in Harlem, New York City. Research was focussed on data and methods from TEACH (Toxic Exposure Assessment, Columbia and Harvard) in New York City. This is a wider study which aims to understand pathways and levels of personal exposures to potentially toxic air pollutants in inner city areas of New York City (Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory, 2004). Although this research is helpful for me to understand the link between air pollution and low socio-economic areas, the paper is slightly dated as the field experiments were carried out in 1999.
Main argument of the paper is to expose the wide range of toxic pollutants children attending high school in inner New York are exposed to. This is highly relevant to my research, as it highlights the lack of environmental justice in New York, as minorities are more likely to be in areas with poorer air quality. The article looks at how 60% of Hispanic people live in areas failing to meet national ambient air quality standards, linking this to the fact that minorities are associated with low socio-economic areas in cities. Furthermore, the research looks at a wide range of air toxics, including black carbon. This is helpful for my research as soot is a major problem in New York City.
The methods carried out to complete the field research included two field campaigns (winter and summer, 1999) with 8 weeks of fixed-site ambient monitoring on the school roof and on a roof at the Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory (LDEO) in Palisades, New York, in order to compare levels of air pollution within and outside the city centre. Questionnaires were handed out to chosen students in the class who were non-smokers and from non-smoking households. These questionnaires included questions such as listing hobbies that take place outside and home heating and cooking methods. The students were then given an instrument which sampled air quality, which they carried around in a customized backpack.
The field methods carried out by TEACH were excellent, as they captured a wide range of data. Although taking readings from the LDEO is an effective control, it could be more effective to take readings from a school in a wealthier area to be able to make a direct comparison between socio-economic status and air quality students are exposed to.
Haley, V. Talbot, T. and Felton, H. 2009. Surveillance of the short-term impact of fine particle air pollution on cardiovascular disease hospitalizations in New York State. Environmental Health. Volume 8. Issue 42.
The authors of this article work for the New York State Department of Health and New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. This article looks at the relationship between fine particle matter and cardiovascular disease in New York State. Although it doesn’t directly relate to New York City, this source is noteworthy as it includes an analysis of the who is more likely to get a cardiovascular disease based on vulnerability of the population, healthcare that’s available to them, how exposed they are to fine particle matter and what the matter is made up of.
Data was obtained from New York State hospitals, where the researchers looked at how many people had been admitted with cardiovascular problems. For each of these people, they took their address geocoded them to be able to place this information on a map. Information on poverty was obtained from Census data. Temperature, humidity, and air pressure data were obtained from the National Climatic Data Center. To collect data on fine particle matter, a sample is collected on a filter for 24 hours at ambient temperature and humidity. This sample is then weighed and the mass concentration was calculated. The methods chosen are appropriate as the data was collected from non-bias sources, however due to financial restraints the fine particle matter readings could only be collected every 3 days, which could impact the results. Although the research did not find a link between poverty and susceptibility to air pollution, they do point out that area level poverty may not represent individual risk.
Shah Anoop S V, Lee Kuan Ken, McAllister David A, Hunter Amanda, Nair Harish, Whiteley William et al. 2015. Short term exposure to air pollution and stroke: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. Volume 350.
This article was published in the BMJ, which is the oldest weekly medical journal and was voted as the medical journal with the 5th most impact. As this paper was published in 2015, it will contain the most up to date data on the correlation between air pollution and stroke sufferers. Although it does not directly relate to New York City, it considers air pollution within an urban setting, which can be related to my research question. Methods used included searching databases such as Global Health, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature and Web of Science. The researchers did not collect their own data on fine particle matter, but relied on data from other pieces of literature where field data had been collected on a daily basis as to ensure a low risk of bias. This paper is noteworthy as it contains many references, which demonstrates the wide range of literature the authors considered when compiling their analysis. The study found that particulate matter and gaseous pollutants both showed a strong temporal relation with mortality from stroke and admission to hospital for stroke. This source is relevant to my research as it highlights that the association of air pollution and strokes is highest within low and middle income families, which relates to my question of environmental justice within an urban setting. However, one limitation to the study is that the researchers did not have access to primary data, so could not determine if there was an overlap of patients who visited more than one hospital.
K.M. Mortimer, L.M. Neas, D.W. Dockery, S. Redline, I.B. Tager. 2002. The effect of air pollution on inner-city children with asthma. European Respiratory Journal. Volume 19. Issue 4.
This source is a peer reviewed article for the European Respiratory Journal which looks at the effects of air pollution on inner city children with asthma in 8 inner city areas. Two of the areas considered are East Harlem and The Bronx in New York City. As these are districts of NYC and areas with low socioeconomic status and high rates of poverty, this is highly relevant to my research question. The paper contains an extensive reference list, showing how broad the research was, making this paper particularly noteworthy. Methods included taking data from the National Cooperative Inner City Asthma Study and obtaining air pollution information from the US Environmental Protection Agency. The findings of the research show that in the summer, pollution is related to increased respiratory problems for children with asthma, even at pollution levels below the US’s air quality standards. This is highly relevant to my research as it shows the government’s air quality standards are set too high and this is causing adverse health effects for vulnerable children in poorer areas of the city.
Raw Data Sources
Garg R, Karpati A, Leighton J, Perrin M, Shah M. 2003. Asthma Facts, Second Edition. New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. Available <http://www.nyc.gov/html/doh/downloads/pdf/asthma/facts.pdf>
The authors of the paper are Renu Garg, Adam Karpati, Jessica Leighton, Mary Perrin and Mona Shah of the New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, which is a department within the government of New York City. Garg has produced many papers on public health in New York City (PubFacts). The research for this paper was conducted for the New York City childhood asthma initiative, which was launched in 1997 to bring ‘high quality asthma care to children in poor communities’ (Children’s Health Fund, 2013). Although this source contains a small section of analysis, it is primarily made up of raw data. The paper contains a range of tables providing information on asthma suffers, linking this to age, race, socio-economic status and borough. This is very helpful for my research as it allows me to understand how a wide range of demographics are affected by air pollution.
The data has come from 6 sources, which is explained in Appendix A – About the Data. This includes DOHMH Office of Vital Statistics and Epidemiology for the mortality data, DOHMH School Health Program, New York City Community Health Survey for the adult prevalence data; the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) for the national asthma data; and the U.S. Census Bureau for the population data. These sources are official health figures and are unlikely to contain bias, so the raw data used in this paper is reliable.
United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2015. Air Quality Statistics Report for New York-Northern New Jersey-Long Island for 2014. http://www3.epa.gov/airdata/ad_rep_con.html
This source is a list of statistics generated by the US Environmental Protection Agency, which was set up to protect health and the environment through policy decisions (USEPA, 2015). This website allows me to choose a state or city in the US and view the air quality statistics for a selected year. This is relevant to my research as I can see how much fine particle matter and carbon is in the air in New York compared with other areas in the USA. A list of EPA air quality standards are listed with the data, allowing me to compare the statistics for New York with the EPA’s standards. From this information, I can see that New York’s fine particle matter is very close to the EPA’s standard. I could then compare this data with health data from New York to see if there is a correlation between air pollution and health defects. A limitation to this source is that because it is just raw data, there is no explanation of the methods involved in obtaining the data. This raw data source is particularly noteworthy as there is an accompanying article which describes what the columns of data mean and information on what the report tells you (EPA, 2015). However, data for 2015 is not available yet, which is another limiting factor to my research.
Grey Sources
Frost, E. 2015. MAP: Dozens of NYC Buildings Illegally Burning Dirty Oil Past Deadline. DNAInfo. [Online] Available: <https://www.dnainfo.com/new-york/20150826/upper-west-side/map-dozens-of-nyc-buildings-illegally-burning-dirty-oil-past-deadline>
This source is a news article is from DNAinfo.com, which reports on local news in New York and Chicago. The author is Emily Frost, who is a producer/reporter for the Upper West Side of New York. The main argument of this report is that although the deadline for New York residents to stop burning No.6 oil has passed, some residents continue to do so, which is leading to continued risk of asthma and heart attacks. There are no references within the text, which would be beneficial for the reader to find out where the author obtained the health data from. Although it is unreferenced, it gives information on the timeline used by the New York government for when they want to phase out the use of No.6 oil.
There is a map of New York which shows the buildings which are still burning No.6 oil, and a number of them are in Manhattan’s wealthiest districts in the Upper West Side. This is helpful to my research as it shows that even the wealthiest in New York are not immune to the effects of dirty oil. It also allows me to consider that although No.6 oil continues to be burned in wealthier districts of New York such as Manhattan, by using my Asthma Facts (2003) raw data source I can see that Manhattan has the lowest percentage of children being admitted to hospital for asthma hospitalizations, and poorer boroughs such as The Bronx have a much higher rate. Although this source doesn’t contain references for the data presented, it is noteworthy and relevant for my research as it gives a picture of the local use of No.6 oil.
Gregory, K. 2014. Cost Among Hurdles Slowing New York City’s Plan to Phase Out Dirty Heating Oil. New York Times. [Online] Available: http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/07/nyregion/cost-among-hurdles-slowing-new-yorks-plan-to-phase-out-dirty-heating-oil.html?_r=0
This source is from The New York Times and was written by Kia Gregory, who has written many articles for the newspaper, primarily regarding issues in Harlem, one of New York’s poorer districts. This reference is particularly noteworthy as it gives the residents of some of New York’s most polluted areas a voice, providing significant insight to their concerns regarding their health and air pollution. The author interviewed one New York resident who is concerned for her grandson’s health so keeps the windows closed, and another who is concerned to move to an apartment on a higher level, closer to the chimney. This article also highlights issues of environmental injustice, where the poorest districts in New York don’t have access to gas mains, which means they will continue to burn No.6 oil, resulting in them being more at risk to health issues connected to air pollution. The sources for this article are reliable as they are the ones who are experiencing New York’s heating problem at ground level.
Environmental Defence Fund. New York City slashes harmful soot pollution. https://www.edf.org/health/air/new-york-heating-oil
This is an article from the Environmental Defence Fund, who are one of the world’s largest environmental organizations, who find solutions to problems whilst protecting natural systems and benefiting human health. The article discusses that the EDF, in collaboration with the city, set up NYC Clean heat, which helps building managers switch from dirty No.6 oil to cleaner heating fuels. Although this reference is quite short, it supplies information surrounding why they developed NYC Clean Heat, mainly due to the health problems associated with soot in NYC, which is relevant to my research. This article is noteworthy and reliable as it is written by the organisation who are committed to helping the residents of New York City experience a cleaner environment. Furthermore, they are tackling the issue of environmental justice by helping building managers make the switch to a cleaner heating method, as managers in poorer areas may not have had the funds to make the switch.
Bibliography
Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory. 2004. Columbia and Harvard University Researchers Conduct Study on Toxic Exposures in Urban Environments. http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/news-events/columbia-and-harvard-university-researchers-conduct-study-toxic-exposures-urban-environm
Children’s Health Fund, 2013. Childhood Asthma Initiative. http://www.childrenshealthfund.org/child-health-care/special-initiatives/childhood-asthma-initiative
US Environmental Protection Agency. 2015. Our Mission and What We Do. http://www2.epa.gov/aboutepa/our-mission-and-what-we-do
US Environmental Protection Agency. 2015. About Reports. http://www3.epa.gov/airdata/ad_about_reports.html#con
