Lit Review

Indigenous Feminism and Intersectionality: Structural Violence as a Product of Colonialism and Patriarchy

In researching my “Big Idea” project, the main question I had in mind was: what is intersectionality and how is it related to the structural violence experienced by Indigenous women in Canada? I have decided to focus on intersectionality because I believe it is part of the structural core of Indigenous feminism, and must be considered when differentiating between other forms of feminism. I have chosen to use the murdered and missing women as an example because it represents the real and tangible effects that the intersection between colonialism and patriarchy have on Indigenous women in Canada. Through this research, I have touched on many different ideas, theories, and examples that all come back to the overarching notion of double-marginalization and colonial gender violence. This list is by no means exhaustive, but provides a starting point for opening up a conversation about Indigenous feminism and its undeniable relationship to intersectionality.

Barker, Joanne. “Gender, Sovereignty, Rights: Native Women’s Activism against Social Inequality and Violence in Canada.” American Quarterly60.2 (2008): 259-66. Web. 17 Feb. 2017.

• This source goes into the point of Indigenous feminism and activism, and includes the notion of sovereignty which is a critical aspect of Indigeneity. It displays how self-determination is rooted in sexist ideologies and histories, which is imperative to the marginalization of Indigenous women today. I will use this piece when speaking of Indigenous feminist activism and its critical role in the future.

Crenshaw, Kimberlé. Kimberlé Crenshaw: The urgency of intersectionality | TED Talk | TED.com. N.p., Oct. 2016. Web. 20 Feb. 2017.

• Although this particular Ted Talk is centered around the discrimination of African American women in America, Crenshaw’s explanation of intersectionality in the video is not only extremely helpful, but coming from the direct source of knowledge (as Crenshaw herself is the scholar to have coined the term). The visuals used in the video are helpful and allow for an excellent understanding of the importance that intersectionality plays in the discussion of feminism.

Crenshaw, Kimberlé. “Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color.” Stanford Law Review43.6 (1991): 1241-299. Web. 20 Feb. 2017.

• Another piece by Crenshaw, this one goes into much greater detail and analysis about the race and gender dimensions of violence faced by women of colour. She focuses on battering and rape, which is a great example to use in the context of Indigenous women as they face the highest level of abuse of any other female population in Canada.

Dhamoon, Rita Kaur. “Considerations on Mainstreaming Intersectionality.” Political Research Quarterly64.1 (2011): 230-43. Web. 20 Feb. 2017.

• I have included this source because I believe its argument that intersectionality must be pushed into the mainstream is not only interesting but crucial. One of the greatest issues intersectionality faces is that not enough people understand it or even know of it, so mainstreaming the issue is critical if women of colour are to ever see success in dismantling large oppressive powers.

“Fact Sheet: Missing and Murdered Aboriginal Women and Girls.” NWAC. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Feb. 2017.

• This fact sheet about the missing and murdered Indigenous women will be very helpful when discussing intersectional violence. It provides very clear statistics and facts about the issue, including a discussion about the intergenerational effects of the violence despite the fact that it has only recently gained the attention of the media.

“Fact Sheet: Missing and Murdered Aboriginal Women and Girls in British Columbia.” NWAC. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Feb. 2017.

• I have included another fact sheet about the murdered and missing Indigenous women strictly from BC. I have chosen to use this to localize and contextualize the issue to the area I am studying in, and also because BC has the highest number of cases of any other province or territory in Canada. I also believe this fact sheet presents a number of key ideas and statistics that I would like to use as examples.

Gilchrist, Kristen. ““Newsworthy” Victims?” Feminist Media Studies10.4 (2010): 373-90. Web.

• This particular source discusses the difference in media coverage of missing Indigenous women and missing white women, which I believe adds another angle to the argument of intersectional violence. It very clearly lays out how little the media and news coverage cares about Indigenous women and how far they are willing to go to once again push these women to the margins. I particularly like how this is a very relatable example and one that is easy for the general population to understand.

Green, Rayna. “The Pocahontas Perplex: The Image of Indian Women in American Culture.” Intercultural and Interracial Relations(1998): 182-87. Web.

• This article is extremely detailed in discussing the Pocahontas stereotype, and although not directly pertaining to my argument, the stereotype in general is an important one to be familiar with when discussing Indigenous feminism. The “noble savage” or “Indian Princess” view of Indigenous women in North America is still perpetuated to this day, and is a product of colonial gendered ideologies.

Howell, Mike. “Thousands participate in Women’s Memorial March in Downtown Eastside.” Vancouver Courier. N.p., 15 Feb. 2017. Web. 20 Feb. 2017.

• This article highlights the Women’s Memorial March in the Downtown Eastside for the missing and murdered Indigenous women and girls. I believe this is an important event to talk about when discussing hope for the future, as thousands of people participate in the event who are willing to affect change and support these women. I also think it’s extremely poignant in that this event (and the issue) is contextualized to the city in which I am living and studying.

Jiwani, Yasmin and Young, Mary Lynn. “Missing and Murdered Women: Reproducing Marginality in News Discourse.” Canadian Journal of Communication31.4 (2006): 895-917. Web. 20 Feb. 2017.

• This source is also dealing with the issue of representations (or lack thereof) of the murdered and missing Indigenous women in the media. It argues that the media was more focussed on the “war on terror” in Afghanistan rather than on its war on women at home, and the ignorance of these issues furthers their marginalization. I plan to use it as yet another example of the intersectional violence suffered by these women, including in politics and the popular media.

Kuokkanen, Rauna. “Globalization as Racialized, Sexualized Violence.” International Feminist Journal of Politics10.2 (2008): 216-33. Web. 24 Feb. 2017.

• I have added this article because I believe it adds an extremely interesting point in that it argues Indigenous women are the most negatively affected by economic globalization. I believe this goes hand in hand with the argument that the state is one of the greatest perpetrators of colonial gender violence, as the state and the market are undeniably linked.

Lawrence, Bonita. “Gender, Race, and the Regulation of Native Identity in Canada and the United States: An Overview.” Hypatia18.2 (2003): 3-31. Web.

• This source yet again deals with the intersectionality of gender and race, but also highlights the regulation of native identities through a colonial gaze in the US and Canada. I plan to use this argument in my point about activism, as much Indigenous feminist activism today is enacted in order to fight for self-determination and an autonomous identity, which has been silenced and/or stolen for centuries.

Maracle, Lee. “Blind justice.” Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society2:1 (2013): 134-136. Web.

• This particular poem by Lee Maracle I found extremely compelling and honest about the truths of Indigenous peoples in Canada. One of the stanzas includes a section about the highway of tears (relating to intersectional violence) but the entire piece as a whole has a strong feminist tone behind it. I believe it will function very well as one of the few non-academic pieces that I have included in terms of detailing out several of my ideas.

Maracle, Lee. I am woman: a native perspective on sociology and feminism. Vancouver: Press Gang Publishers, 1996. Print.

• Lee Maracle is an extremely talented poet and writer and I am delighted to be able to incorporate some of her work into my project. I plan to use this book for overarching ideas and theories behind Indigenous women and feminism, particularly from a sociological perspective.

Marchetti, Elena. “Intersectional Race and Gender Analyses: Why Legal Processes Just Don’t Get It.” Social & Legal Studies17.2 (2008): 155-74. Web. 17 Feb. 2017.

• This source provides another discussion of intersectionality in legal terms, but framed in a way that describes why the legal system is unable to accommodate racialized women. This is particularly interesting because most legal discussions simply revolve around the violence that the legal system perpetuates, but rarely delves into the reasons why the legal system can still remain patriarchal even when discussing and attempting to aid issues about racialized women.

“Marginalization of Aboriginal women.” Indigenous Foundations. First Nations and Indigenous Studies, The University of British Columbia, n.d. Web. 27 Feb. 2017.

• This source, from the Indigenous Foundations page used in this course, provides a brief yet succinct history of the marginalization of Indigenous women leading up to contemporary times. I will use this as my source for any historical arguments of the effects of colonization and patriarchal ideologies in the continued subordination of Indigenous women and the legacy these institutions have created.

“National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls.” National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls. N.p., 2017. Web. 25 Feb. 2017.

• This source is for the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls. This is the source I plan to draw on when talking about reconciliation, as I wish not to just focus on the tragedy of these events but rather the hope for the future of these women.

Olsen Harper, Anita. “Is Canada Peaceful and Safe for Aboriginal Women?” Canadian Women Studies25.1&2 (2006): 33-38. Web. 20 Feb. 2017.

• This source provides a good explanation of structural violence against Indigenous women in legal terms, which is important for my argument and proving the role that the state plays in their marginalization. It also argues an interesting point in that Canada is often ranked one of the top countries in the world to live in terms of living standards, which blatantly ignores the violence, poverty, and marginalization Indigenous women suffer under a colonial state.

Pearce, Maryanne. “An Awkward Silence: Missing and Murdered Vulnerable Women and the Canadian Justice System.” Diss. U of Ottawa, 2013. Abstract. (n.d.): n. pag. Print.

• This dissertation provides the most complete and detailed arguments of any source I have cited thus far. It encapsulates Indigenous women socio-economically, stereotypically, within crime and the criminal justice system, within the field of sex work, and provides a detailed analysis of the missing women from the Downtown Eastside, localizing the issue. I will use many of these points in my paper to argue the multi-faceted structure of intersectionality and violence against Indigenous women (proving that employment status is another intersection, with sex work perpetuating marginalization).

PoetrySlamVancouver. “Winona Linn – Knock-Off Native.” YouTube. YouTube, 30 Jan. 2013. Web. 2 Feb. 2017.

• This spoken word poem is the piece that I chose to use for the evidence analysis assignment. It relates to my topic in that Linn offers a relatable, strong-willed and humorous feminist tone while speaking of her personal experiences of intersectional discrimination. I believe her ideas and language are very helpful in coming to a brief understanding of the difference between Indigenous feminism and other forms.

Simpson, Leanne. “#ItEndsHere: Rebelling against colonial gender violence.” rabble.ca. N.p., 18 Mar. 2014. Web. 27 Feb. 2017.

• This article by Leanne Simpson is incredibly powerful in discussing the “colonial gender violence” experienced by Indigenous women in Canada. This term that she uses is one I plan to use often, as I feel that it best encapsulates the idea of intersectionality in relation to Indigenous women. I also think her argument of the State being the greatest perpetrator of colonial gender violence is a very poignant one, and I want to use that idea in my paper as well.

Statistics Canada. “First Nations, Métis and Inuit Women.” Government of Canada, Statistics Canada. N.p., 23 Feb. 2016. Web. 10 Feb. 2017.

• This Stats Canada page will be extremely helpful in arguing for the case that Indigenous women in Canada are disproportionately disadvantaged compared to other female populations. It provides many layers of statistics displaying their marginalization, including poverty and poor living standards as well as low levels of education and employment.

Statistics Canada. “Violent Victimization of Aboriginal Women in the Canadian Provinces, 2009.” Government of Canada, Statistics Canada. N.p., 30 Nov. 2015. Web. 10 Feb. 2017.

• This source is another Statistics Canada page which outlines the statistics on Indigenous women’s violent victimization in comparison to non-Indigenous female populations. While not the center of my argument, I believe this is still an important issue to bring up as the missing and murdered women only represent a fraction of the abuse and neglect suffered by Indigenous women in Canada, and the physical, emotional and sexual abuse faced by these women is yet another product of colonial male violence.

Stratford, Andrea. “Racialization of Poverty: Indigenous Women, the Indian Act, and Systemic Oppression.” Vancouver Status of Women (2007): 1-25. Web.

• Finally, this source deals with the systemic oppression of Indigenous women in terms of poverty. It deals with many legal arguments and history behind this oppression and I plan to use it in order to flesh out my argument of the historical roots of colonization still affecting the lives of Indigenous women in contemporary times.

Suzack, Cheryl. “Indigenous Feminisms in Canada.” NORA – Nordic Journal of Feminist and Gender Research23.4 (2015): 261-74. Web.

• This source provides a good, thorough definition of Indigenous feminism that will be helpful to cite in my final paper. It also includes case studies of activism within the field of Indigenous feminism, which will be helpful in fleshing out my point pertaining to activism within the Indigenous feminist community.

Suzack, Cheryl, Shari M. Huhndorf, Jeanne Perreault, and Jean Barman. Indigenous Women and Feminism: Politics, Activism, Culture. Vancouver: UBC Press, 2014. Print.

• This is one of the greatest sources in collectivizing all of my arguments. It provides the best analysis of Indigenous feminist activism, and the history behind Indigenous feminism as well. I will be drawing on this source quite a bit for my arguments, as it is very thorough in explaining the interaction of Indigenous women with their oppressions in a North American context.

Thompson, Cheryl. “White populist feminism makes intersectionality nearly impossible.” Rabble.ca. N.p., 21 Feb. 2017. Web. 24 Feb. 2017.

• This source is very important to my argument as it is the only one which compares intersectional feminism to the more popularized Western, white, privileged feminism (“populist feminism”). It deals with the untold truths of the harm that white feminism can cause to women of colour and why speaking on behalf of everyone can actually cause further oppression.

“5 striking facts about missing and murdered indigenous women in Canada.” CBCnews. CBC/Radio Canada, 07 Feb. 2017. Web. 17 Feb. 2017.

• This CBC article provides five striking facts about the missing and murdered Indigenous women that I think are quite shocking and compelling (some negatively and some positively). I believe these facts will help my argument in proving that Indigenous women face a disproportionate amount of oppression in Canada compared to other female populations, and includes an interesting quote that I wish to use.

The largest issue I encountered while completing my research was that nearly every source I found dealt with either the oppression and marginalization Indigenous women face or intersectional feminism; it was very rare to find an article or piece of literature on Indigenous women’s relationship to intersectionality. I have found myself drawing from pieces of evidence that deal with intersectionality in reference to African American women, and having to make my own connections between not only gender and race but colonialism as well. Another issue that arose was that it became quite difficult to find Indigenous feminist work pertaining specifically to women in Canada, and I found that the US, Australia, and Latin America provided a large majority of the literature on settler-states relations with their Indigenous women. Having said that, I am quite excited about the literature that I have found and believe these sources provide a great wealth of knowledge to draw from when moving forward with my project.