Disgrace by J.M Coetzee is an allegory for post-apartheid South Africa that paints a harsh portrait of the conditions of humanity at the end of the 20th century. It describes the life of David Lurie who engages in an inappropriate relationship with his student and rapes her. He then moves to live on his daughter’s farm where she gets pregnant after being raped. Lurie feels remorse. Man’s treatment of animals and the power relationship between them is representative of the distinct racial hierarchy present in South Africa.

The structure of the novel closely approximates the canonical tragedy set against a contemporary backdrop. For example, Lurie exhibits major characteristics of a dynamic, tragic hero whose hubris is his insatiable sexual appetite. Throughout the novel, he undergoes significant social change. The end result is a cathartic moment of empathy symbolized by his revelations of animals. This mimics the structure of other postcolonial novels such as Chinua Achebe’s “things fall apart.”

The racial politics in South Africa saw the subordination of Africans and their dehumanized treatment in society. Dogs are motifs through the novel that develop the character of Petrus. He is first introduced as ‘dog-man’ which is critical as he is black. After the murder of the dogs, he claims that he is ‘no longer dog-man.’ He is also progressively acquiring lots of Lucy’s land. This symbolizes the ascension of the African social class after apartheid.

Further, Lucy’s acceptance of her rape symbolizes the process of reconciliation of the crimes of the race conducted during apartheid. This image of forgiveness despite ravaging violence is enhanced by the marriage of Petrus and Lucy which displays the unity forced onto South Africa through Independence. Whilst Lurie is stuck in the power dynamics of the past, Lucy has adapted to the new power order.

Conclusively, man’s relationship with animals parallels the racial dynamics at play in South Africa and in the novel as a microcosmic critique of the South African post-colonial socio-political climate.

Maus by Art Spiegelman tells the story of intergenerational trauma and the Holocaust through the story of Vladek and Anya, Art’s parents. It breaks middle ground in the polar genres of comics, memoir, and history. Spiegelman uses symbolic imagery and narrative voice to embody the transmission and understanding of trauma within family generations.

The unique method of using animal symbolism and a comic genre presents a distinct perspective on how we recount trauma. Mice and Cats are used to represent Jews and Nazis respectively. On a manifest level, Spiegelman used symbolism to evade censorship charges but personally, I believe this attests to the paradigm of the game of cat and mouse. As the archetypal never-ending chase, Spiegelman may have used this imagery to attest to humankind’s inevitable return to violence and war. In the wake of the Holocaust, the world was ravaged by the cruelties that were revealed and proclaimed ‘never-again.’ Yet, as we know modern genocide persists in a variety of ways. Further, the delineation of prey and hunter imagery adds to the characterization of the victimized Jews and preying Nazis in the novel. And, the lack of distinction between the mice or Nazis implies the universality of the struggle experienced by Vladek thereby widening the story to become the story of all Jews. Thus, the use of cat and mouse imagery underlines the implicit message of the threat of a return to war and genocide and serves as a commentary on the threat of racial power dynamics.

Secondly, Maus explores the long term effects of trauma through the structural construction of Maus’ storyline. The use of dual first-person narratives of Artie and his father shows the consequential intergenerational effects of trauma as it shows the discord within their relationship. Further, Spiegelman’s construction moves between the past and the present to show how Vladek’s trauma affected Art’s childhood and the resultant disconnect between them in the present. The use of the first person also establishes a closer intimacy with the characters for the reader which is emphasized by the visual representation of comics. This allows the reader to empathize with the characters in two dimensions. In this way, Spiegelman explores the way trauma is retold and experienced by each generation.

Conclusively, the imagery and narrative structure of the novel utilizes realism and surrealism by communicating the pain of trauma through the symbolism of the hunted and the hunter.

In our world of multi-ethnic populations, how do we define ‘immigrant’? How do we decide who is ‘American’? Consequently, how do we define ‘the Other?’

The Reluctant Fundamentalist by Mohsin Hamid confronts these concepts in subtle and probing ways by exploring the nuances of identity, culture and racism through the perspective of his Pakistani-American protagonist.  9/11 catalyzed a wave of anti-terrorism, anti-Islamic sentiment in America, triggering the ‘War on Terror’ and resultantly, the war on minorities. President Bush employed the dominant narrative of ‘Us versus them’ to unite a country torn by tragedy through hate. Suddenly, the loyalty of entire ethnic groups was called into question.

Hamid’s novel is about negotiating a narrative, spotlighting the marginalized perspective without interruption. Hamid underlines the sociological construction of a ‘reluctant fundamentalist’ by attempting to portray Changez as a product of his society and diverges from the canonical representation of an Islamic Fundamentalist in American Media, in order to underline the coexistence of multiple narratives.

Many scholars observed the post 9/11 shift in fictional focus, with many writers switching to political commentary or fiction that focused on the trauma and psychological effects of the event in isolation (Morey, 136). Hamid instead traces the event as an element of a larger shift in national priorities and its eutrophic effect on the lives of the Islamic diaspora. For example, 9/11 as an event is paid very little attention to in the novel yet the effects of it on the narrative are pervasive. Initially, Changez reaction to the attack upholds the American portrayal of the snide religious fundamentalist, gloating in American tragedy as Changez smiles when he sees the news (Hamid,72). However, this image is quickly subverted as Changez attempts to empathize with his peers and even becomes afraid at the possibility that Erica is one of the victims. Given Erica’s existence as a symbolic correlative of America, Changez’s reaction to the 9/11 attack delineates his dual identity as an American and an outsider. This represents Changez complicated relationship with the dual aspects of his identity and his role as a ‘reluctant’ fundamentalist. The struggle between the poles of Changez character is entrenched in the aftermath of 9/11. For example, when he faces the discrimination of being the only member of his team to be strip-searched at the airport, he comments on the feeling of discomfort he feels within himself. He says:

“I flew to New York uncomfortable in my own face; I was aware of being under suspicion; I felt guilty; I tried, therefore, to be as nonchalant as possible; this naturally led to my becoming stiff and self-conscious.” (Hamid, 74)

This comment is particularly significant as it displays Changez realization of the fact that he would never be fully accepted into America and this becomes a turning point in his development as both a man and as an Anti-American. The tension he now faces in interactions with his Caucasian counterparts is even depicted in his conversation with his American listener, as the reader remains tense with the dynamic between prey and hunter and the question of who is who (Perner, 29). From the onset, the tone of the dynamic between his American adversary and Changez is precarious and rife with mistrust and this continues to the closure of the novel where similes of hunting pepper the text. For example, he describes the American as-

“an animal that has ventured too far from its lair and is now, in unfamiliar surroundings, uncertain whether it is predator or prey” (Hamid, 138)

The semantics of ‘animal, unfamiliar, predator and prey’ not only deepen the dark, tense tone of the text but also embody the dehumanization and discomfort Changez feels in America.

This is developed further as throughout the novel the American whom Changez narrates his story to remains silent, which inverts the paradigm of a master narrative so that the narrative of the minority takes precedence over that of the American Nationalist. Since Hamid’s novel deals with experiences of major gravitas that would be inaccessible to all segments of society, he employs devices of realism that grounds a larger narrative into the normalcy of growing up. The Reluctant Fundamentalist is at its essence, a coming of age novel embedded in a pointed socio-political commentary. Illustratively, the novel begins by tracing Changez over-achieving endeavors in the professional and educational fields of life. This displays how America has cultivated Changez into the ideal capitalist employee and how this aspect affects Changez relationship to America in that he believes he loves America. A better example is how Hamid parallels everyday struggles of adolescence and humanity with the political tension ensuing post-9/11. Post 9/11, as Changez faces more and more discrimination, his affinity for America and his relationship with Erica both begin to unravel. The association between the loss of a romantic relationship and his growing resentment towards America derives a normalcy within the trauma of the attacks, and thus makes Changez experiences more accessible to a wider audience. Conversely, Perner views the inclusion of the romantic subplot as a mechanism of melancholia that bases Changez’s changing relationship with America in deeper emotion (28).

Furthermore, Hamid’s deliberate use of a single narrative framework cleverly presents the superficiality of a master narrative (Morey, 140). The paradox of The Reluctant Fundamentalist is that it is simultaneously polyphonic and monophonic- Changez speaks in a monologue yet we ‘hear’ Erica, the American etc. This presents Changez as an unreliable narrator because the presentation of his life is not truly developed with multiple perspectives. This poses as an allegory for the dominant narratives presented by the American Media and subtly reminds the reader of the trap of believing only what is told. The idea of an inverted paradigm of fundamentalism can be developed further through examining Erica’s response to 9/11. Her disappearance into the memories of her past lover is described as ‘dangerous nostalgia’ and her approval of the American military response as ‘devout.’ This is a reversal of the American portrayal of Islamic Fundamentalists as it parallels the master narrative of threatening, religious fanatics through Erica’s (and America’s) extreme reaction. Essentially, Hamid holds up a mirror to America and the reader and provokes a reckoning with the bases of our biases and ignorance.

Additionally, Changez struggle with the aspects of his identity can also be seen in his characterization. Before 9/11 he declares his ‘wholehearted support for topless beaches’ and displays a distinct lack of interest in religious practices. Effectively, he is nothing like the stereotype of an Islamic fundamentalist. Yet after 9/11, he grows out his beard in a defiant attempt to channel the prototype of a bearded, religious terrorist. He almost dares America to reject him as demonstrated where he describes Erica’s relationship to Chris (and therefore American nationalism), as “a religion that would not accept me as a convert” (Hamid, 114). Resultantly, Hamid expertly uses structural and symbolic elements to identify the folly in believing that there is only a single master narrative, and forces the reader to confront the existence of multiple narratives and the superficiality of bias.

Conclusively, The Reluctant Fundamentalist poses a question of multiculturalism, tolerance and forced separatism. The vague ending leaves an unresolved tension which constructs the novel as unfinished, much like our current political narrative and struggles with separatism and racism. And yet, the lack of a denouement is precisely what fulfills Hamid’s goal, as he emphasizes the importance of multiple perspectives interacting as a conversation, not a monologue. Essentially, there is no resolute ending because there is no resolute or single narrative perspective. In this way, Hamid uses symbolism, structure, and characterization to diverge from the canonical post 9/11 novel and create a masterpiece that highlights the coexistence of multiple narratives and the importance of realizing the marginalized in our community.

Works Cited

Perner, Claudia. “Tracing the Fundamentalist in Mohsin Hamid’s Moth Smoke and The Reluctant Fundamentalist.” Currents: Scholarship in the Human Services, journalhosting.ucalgary.ca/index.php/ariel/article/view/35084.

Hartnell, Anna (2010) Moving through America: Race, place, and resistance in Mohsin Hamid’s The Reluctant Fundamentalist, Journal of Postcolonial Writing, 46:3-4, 336-348, DOI: 10.1080/17449855.2010.482407

Morey, Peter (2011) “The rules of the game have changed”: Mohsin Hamid’s The Reluctant Fundamentalist and post‐9/11 fiction, Journal of Postcolonial Writing, 47:2, 135-146, DOI: 10.1080/17449855.2011.557184

Depicted in uniform panels of black and white caricatures, Persepolis, written by Marjane Satrapi is an autobiographical graphic memoir that retells Satrapi’s childhood in Iran in the midst of the Iranian Revolution. Against a backdrop of socio-political upheaval, Satrapi’s protagonist reflects the dynamic nature of a country in the midst of redefining itself as she struggles with her identity as a Muslim, an educated woman and an Iranian largely represented with the symbol of the Veil. Satrapi employs elements of contemporary postcolonial commentary by deviating from the conventions of the autobiographical genre to subvert the Western orientalist perspective of Iranian women.

Justin D. Edwards, a professor at the University of Stirling, claims postcolonialism ‘arises out of political independence’ (10) and Deepika Bahtri from Emory University asserts that it popularized a form of expression critiqued to be in ‘charge of historical, economic, political representation’ (11) against cultural appropriation.  In Persepolis, Satrapi defies the Western portrayal of Muslim women as religiously oppressed by inverting the stereotype of the veiled woman. As a protagonist, Marji represents the discourse between Eastern and Western influences through her negotiation of her identity within the binaries of her culture. Marji as a child is deeply religious yet she adores Western literature and culture and at several points of the novel she notes the dichotomy between the dialogues she is taught at home and at school. For example, at school she is forced to wear the veil but she notes ‘I didn’t know how to feel about the veil but I knew as a family we were very avant garde,’ thereby exhibiting her existence as a postcolonial subject of acculturation. Even the title ‘Persepolis’, being the Grecian name for ancient Iran denotes Marji’s enquiry into the history of her background and the assimilation of new cultures around her. Further, the use of black and white graphics and flashback narrative to depict vivid memories reveals a certain disconnect between Marji and her culture, almost as if she is an observer to her own experience. Therefore, she becomes an allegory for Iran in its struggle between progress and stagnation in its chaos and defining its identity as a nation.

Structurally, Satrapi’s use of the graphic memoir genre diverges from the conventions of autobiography in order to deliver a complex political message in an accessible and unique way. The use of black and white panels creates a universality to an ethnic group that the dominant American narrative presents as marginalized or oppressed. Thus, the combination of visuals and text in Satrapi’s autobiography combine the binary genres of comics and autobiographies to subvert the Western representations of Iranians, specifically Iranian women, by presenting veiled women in contexts of protest rather than oppression.

Additionally, the graphic visual style enables a representation of an exaggerated truth which captures the subjectivity and magnitude of memory. In this way, the individual emotional ramifications of public events are underlined. Illustratively, each chapter begins with the title or introduction of a symbol that defines a moment or idea Marji deals with in her life. One of the most important symbols of the dual identity Marji possesses is represented through the Veil or chador which is the very first chapter. Contextually, the imposition of the Veil as part of woman’s attire and the closure of secular schools is a consequence of the prevalence of the Islamic Republic but for Marji these events break her accepted realities. For example, she observes that ‘God did not choose the King.’ The games she plays with the Veil and the subsequent games she creates out of the trauma of war around her displays the instability of her narrative as a child as well as well as the normalization of terror in her life. Consequently, she becomes even more a metaphor for Iran’s acceptance of its chaotic political landscape and its lack of collective identity. Furthermore, Satrapi’s use of symbolism within the graphic memoir genre enable her to represent the mystery of the Iranian woman by highlighting both the Western assumption of the Veil as a religiously oppressive tool as well as the dynamics of the independent women’s identity underneath. For example, Marji’s games display her rejection of the Veil as a law but later she also adheres to wearing it as she acknowledges its importance in her safety. The public portrayal of Marji as a veiled woman juxtaposes her private life of pop music and liberal thought therefore highlighting the dialectical parallel between the East and West in Iran or the hybridity of postcolonial cultures. Resultantly, this moment of veiling becomes prevalent in Marji’s life as the catalyst of her rebellion which ultimately leads to her being sent to Europe due to her assertion as an independent Iranian women. In this way, Satrapi illustrates the complexity of the Iranian women’s identity by delving into the significance of wearing the Veil as a direct challenge to Marji’s self-identification and undermining the Western assumption that the Veil is simply a misogynistic tool of oppression.

Conclusively, the genre and structure of Persepolis become tools in Satrapi’s exploration of personal and public identity by enabling her to challenge the dominant representations of Iranian women in Western Media. The presentation of her narrator as a child is a metaphor for the Iran’s infancy as a nation as well as it’s impressionability and the inconsistency of perspectives. Since the Veil is one of the most politically and socially controversial symbols in literature, beginning the book by exploring Marji’s experience with the Veil is an assertion of independence and reclamation of the stereotype of the veiled woman. In this way, Satrapi uses symbols in the graphic memoir genre to critique modern postcolonialism through the redefinition of the stereotypical identity of an Iranian woman. Marji serves as a lens through which Satrapi explores the Eastern-Western dynamic, cultural hybridity and complexity of identity resulting from a country undergoing immense socio-cultural turmoil.

Works Cited

Bahtri, Deepika. “Native Intelligence.” Google Books. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 October 2018.

Edwards, Justin D. “Postcolonial Literature.” Google Books. N.p., n.d. Web.15 October 2018.

The role of art within the contemporary political landscape has always been that of the mediator in the argument between History and Biography. The Arts of Resistance exhibit at the Museum of Anthropology perfectly encapsulates this idea in the multitude of artworks it presents, each unique in its retelling of personal and societal histories. The significance of this particular collection was made apparent after the class viewing of Sarah Polley’s ‘Stories We Tell.’ Although superficially distinct art forms, the MOA exhibit and the film bore a resemblance in their common goal to recount a story shared by a community. However, whilst Polley’s work dug to unearth the truths of Polley’s identity at the heart of her family history, Arts of Resistance examines the oppressive narrative in the history of a whole people to derive an expression of resistance. Specifically, El Codice de Ayotzinapa (Ayotzinapa Codex) is an excellent example of an artwork that uses traditional artforms to associate historical resistance and contemporary struggles thereby encouraging socio-political agency in redefining history.

Curated by Laura Osorio Sunnucks, a postdoctoral fellow at the Museum of Anthropology, the exhibit explores how the folkloric art of marginalized, Indigenous populations of South America (Guatemala, Perú, México, El Salvador and Chile) represents contemporary Latin American politics and resistance. The collection is thought to be influential in recognizing the emergence of twenty-first century Latin American Art as socio-political commentary. Essentially, El Codice de Ayotzinapa is a demand for justice as it was drawn up by the Instituto National de Antropologia e Historia in an effort to show solidarity with the people of Ayotzinapa. A series of fifteen panels recount the disappearance of 43 students from Rural Normal School Raúl Isidro Burgos of Ayotzinapa in 2014. The kidnapping was believed to be the work of a drug cartel colluding with state authorities.

This contemporary conflict between the Mexican peoples and their Government becomes a metaphor in the Codex with the Mexican Government represented as the Spanish overlords and the People as the Aztec warriors. In a formulaic fashion, the Codex lists the crimes of the State against its people: the sale of gold and silver to the empires of North America and Europe, the reestablishment of slavery through forced labour and the murder of Indigenous leaders. It is also reminiscent of pre-Hispanic codices in its incorporation of Mesoamerican iconography, use of kfrat paper and coffee color and its adherence to the prescribed dimensions. The result of these techniques is a deliberate link between the archaic and the modern, drawing a parallel between the struggles of pre-Hispanic Mesoamericans and the Spanish conquest with the emergence of  Neo-colonialism in Mexico. Further, it allows a broader commentary on the general mistreatment of the Indigenous in Mexico and the endemic culture of violence by tracing a pattern of conflict in their history. The reclamation of traditional artform can also be thought of as a conscious response to the homogenization of cultures resulting from globalization. In reproducing a historical form of art to tell a contemporary story, the artist attempts cultural preservation and inspires his audience by demonstrating the power of collective solidarity throughout their national history.

However, that is not all the Codex is. It is a memorial because it specifically acknowledges the trauma of the families and victims of the disappearance and the proceeds from its sale went to families of the disappeared. It is a social artwork and contemporary because it also incorporates European iconography and was colored in by families and children, making it a collective piece. The Codex then becomes multi-dimensional and paradoxical, simultaneously telling the stories of individuals and a society and conciliating History and Biography through its use of traditional art forms. Resultantly, the Codex also celebrates the intimacy and intricacy of the relationship between the artist and their society or audience. The form, process, and personality of the artwork fundamentally test the boundaries of the artist’s role as creator, biographer, activist, and storyteller of both their own and shared realities.

Ultimately, the purpose of the Codex is both cathartic and political. It epitomizes the power of traditional art as an assertion of communal identity, recognizes personal and shared history and calls for socio-political change. The Codex challenges the assumption that our society has sauntered past the epoch of abhorrent human rights violations and recognizes the cyclical ability of history. More than an attempt to force us to recognize history as it is being written, the use of traditional art forms to display contemporary political realities provokes us to redefine and rewrite our present.