When examining pork producers’ access to finance and capital in Chinese markets, it is important to remember that one is dealing with three levels of production: the smallholding farm, which produces less than five pigs per year and also raises other crops and livestock; the specialized household farm (SHF), made up of professional farmers focusing on pork production on smaller plots; the large-scale producers can raise or buy and slaughter tens of thousands of hogs per annum (Schneider, 2011). Because of variations in inputs and price cycles, subsidies generally will favour only some of these producers, depending on the level they are best geared toward. Moreover, the subsidies themselves are not centralized and have the tendency to be rather piecemeal, and generally favour large producers and trends towards standardization of feeds and breeds and industrialization of production (Gale et al., 2012). Gale (2012) lists some of the main subsidies offered by central and local governments, often cooperatively. These include subsidy payments for breedable sows, subsidized insurance and free vaccines. However, many of the subsidies show bias towards standardization and industrialization:

• A “fine breed” subsidy for artificial insemination using semen from boars of approved breeds (such as Duroc, Landrace, and Yorkshire).The subsidy is 10 yuan ($1.46) for each insemination, for up to 4 attempts per year for each sow.

• • Financial awards (grants) of approximately $1 million each to local governments of 362 major pork-supplying counties for financing invest­ments in hog housing, manure handling, immunization, and veterinary work.
• • Financial awards to large farms holding at least 500 sows ($146,000) and to standardized farms and village “production zones” where at least 500 hogs are slaughtered annually (from $30,000 to $117,000 according to farm size and province)” (p15-16).

When focusing on costs that affect all levels of production, feed is one of the major inputs that must be considered. The types of feed used, however, do vary. Large producers use large amounts of soybeans in their feed, in addition to corn and other inputs. This was one of the reasons that China liberalized its soy production in the mid-1990’s, ending its former self-sufficiency in soy. This sacrifice was intended to help it remain self-sufficient in end-product pork production by preserving its limited arable land (less than 10% of the world’s arable land, as opposed to a fifth of its human population). This means that 25 million small producers of soy in China have faced problems competing in markets characterized by falling prices and GM soy. Indeed, Schneider (2011) estimates that 30% of them have already fled to the cities. Soy is also viewed as being a feed better geared toward shorter-cycle, leaner pork. Corn, on the other hand, is controlled as a strategic food crop and is commonly grown on-farm and used along with other feed crops by smallholders. SHF’s usually use both corn and soy commercial feeds (Schneider, 2011).

Out of these three varieties of production, it is the large producers who have fared best with the new models of feed production and how they fit into Chinese pork and agricultural markets. The input-intensive system has been able to develop in China, expanding from 2.5% to 22% of pork production between 1985 and 2007 (Schneider, 2011). Their main markets are urban centers, meaning that their stability has been key government policy. Because of their size and varied ownership (ranging from State-owned, private, State-private partnerships, and both foreign and domestic), business moves such as vertical integration are much easier for them to achieve. That said, the production of feed is extremely land-intensive, with Schneider (2011) estimating that one kilogram of industrial pork requires an average of thirteen kilograms of feed (p. 22). This means that large parcels of land are necessary to maintain and expand the system further, and China has indeed been buying such land parcels in South America and Africa. Moreover, the environmental effects of such a system come with hidden costs, and it is reduction of these costs that may allow large-scale production to become far more economically and environmentally sustainable in the long term. The amount of manure produced by industrial pork practices can lead to nutrient overload, which damages the quality of land and watersheds, and can have effects reaching outside the immediate area. One remedy to this problem which has a strong precedent in China is the employment of methane digesters to create biogas. The Ministry of Agriculture has estimated that these are in use by 35 million of 140 million rural households already, thanks to government subsidies for small farmers. They are used by less than one percent of large producers, however, which represents a great loss of input supplementation in the form of natural gas substitutes and fertilizer. Extending this subsidy to large producers as well as small farmers would allow for a reduction in the cost of this negative externality. Moreover, the amount of land required for feed inputs for large producers is damaging to biodiversity, and brings with it the negative side of monoculture, including the draining of nutrients from the soil, the loss of biodiversity, and a risk of being more damaged by natural and biological disasters (Grant, 2012). One way of doing this would be to encourage large producers to use the varying domestic forms of soy and corn in their feeds. Twenty-five million small-scale producers of soy are currently operating in China, and are in need of markets in order to maintain a living. Re-creating markets for local soy has been an area of interest for the Chinese government as well as producers, with the northeast and Inner Mongolia being particular areas of interest for future production. The Chinese Soybean Industry Association (CSIA) recommended mandatory amounts of domestic soy in domestic foodstuffs as a possible way to develop such markets (Schneider, 2011). With regards to large-scale producers, it may be of interest for the government to mandate a certain percentage of soy used in industrial feeds to be domestic. In order to allow the domestic market to develop, this would have to be introduced incrementally, with large producers being able to take the time needed to form business relationships with local producers. Indeed, extending the trend of vertical integration to include local producers of soy and corn would be beneficial in creating closer cooperation between different stages of production, especially with regards to innovation and information exchange. That said, it would be in the interests of consumers to encourage competition between local producers by not allowing too large a concentration of market power to develop among either the soy and corn producers or the companies which may choose the path of vertical integration.

According to the WHO, it is not true that obesity rates are higher in industrialized countries. This is evident base upon the data collated and shown in Figure 1, the diagram shows the top 9 countries that has the highest prevalence of obesity as define by the WHO as having more than or an equivalent BMI of 30. It is shown that the Nauru has the highest obesity rate followed by American Somoa, Tokalau, Tonga and other non-industrialized countries with exception to the relatively wealthier countries such as Saudi Arabia and the US. One observation from Figure 1 is that the top few countries are all from a similar geographic region, the pacific islands.  Nauru has one of the highest obesity prevalence in the world at 71.10% followed by the American Somoa at 74.6%, this is much higher as compared to industrialized countries like the US (33.9%). It is also important to note that most of the top ten countries have a higher obesity rate for woman, with the exception of Nauru that is relatively balance for both adult women and men.

Evans et al. (2001) describes the increasing prevalence of obesity in the nation of Tonga over time, his team analyzes the causes of this phenomenon and further reiterates the consequences of globalization and international trade. The study looks into the various impacts of imported food, and how the increasing consumption of imported food has led to the increase prevalence of obesity within its population. One should also note that Tonga is part of the pacific islands, and many of these reasons could also explain the obesity problems experienced by the pacific island nations stated in Figure 1.

Evans et al. (2001) proceeded to investigate the effects of imported food products, in which 430 Tongans were surveyed for their preferences, perceived nutritional value, and consumption frequency of common food ingredients. Results from the study suggests that Tongans does not have a preference for imported food products, and do have an accurate perception of food ingredients that are unhealthy. Thus, the authors conclude that the increase in consumption frequency is not correlated to increase in preference or the lack of nutritional education.

This study reiterates that the shift from low-fat, nutritious, indigenous source of food to high-fat, non-nutritious imported food products could be largely attributed to the phenomenon of substitution. That is, with trade liberalization the prices of imported food such as chicken parts, mutton flaps and bread are much lower than local, indigenous food sources such as indigenous chicken, fish, taro (local yams). This is supported Tonga’s deteriorating balance of trade from T$56 million at 1989 to T$90 million at 1999; sausage imports increase by 450 tons, while chicken imports increased drastically by 1780 tons. It should also be noted that the population growth rate during this period remained relatively constant. The impact of this increase in consumption of imported food ingredients have also shown to be relatively detrimental to domestic food security by discouraging local food production due to cost disadvantages (Evans et al., 2001) Thus, unlike that of Canada where education plays an important role in addressing obesity problems through alterations of perceptions and preferences, it seems that Tonga’s obesity plight is due to globalization and its impact that made nutritious domestic food products unaffordable for locals. Evans at al. (2001) also concluded that a ban on imported food products could likely improve Tonga’s obesity problem in the long run.

References

World Health Organization, (2009). Who global database on body mass index (bmi). Retrieved from website: http://apps.who.int/bmi/index.jsp?introPage=intro_1.html

EVANS, Mike; SINCLAIR, Robert C.; FUSIMALOHI, Caroline  and  LIAVA’A, Viliami. Globalization, diet, and health: an example from Tonga. Bull World Health Organ [online]. , vol.79, n.9 [cited  2013-02-01], pp. 856-862 . Available from: <http://www.scielosp.org/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0042-96862001000900011&lng=en&nrm=iso>. ISSN 0042-9686.  http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0042-96862001000900011.

The British Columbia government should not institute a tax on sugar-sweetened beverages.  Although there is considerable evidence regarding a relative reduction in sugar sweetened beverages, and the substitution towards the consumption juice and milk (Friedmen and Brownell, 2012). However, it should be noted that given the current market power of major carbonated beverage companies. Similarly it should be noted this tax will likely effect major soda companies like PepsiCo and Coca Cola , furthermore it also should be noted that both firms also produce and market juices. A potential strategy for these companies is raise prices across their entire product line both non-sweetened and sweetened beverages, thereby eroding the impact of such a tax.

It also should be noted that this tax is targeted to all consumers, regardless of their health status. Healthy and active individuals have no choice but to pay the additional cost of consuming any beverages added with sugar, even beverages such as sport drinks and sweetened juices. It is thus unfair for this segment of consumers to be paying for a deterrent tax that has its main focus on reducing consumption to unhealthy and obesity prone consumer segments.

The long term impact on such a tax is uncertain, it is of my personal opinion that companies and corporations will seek out new ways to continue to market its products, given most taxes are implemented on a per unit basis, companies might provide larger size packaging.

“An ancient culture is an ecosystem, a complex web of relationship between human beings and the land they lived on, as in any ecosystem every element is intertwined with all the others, and as in an ecosystem sudden changes have unpredictable effects” (“Schooling the world,” 2010)

The above excerpt reflects the main theme of this documentary. The producers and director of the film laid out the consequence of acculturation. That is, the export of western education system to the developing world seen in part as development aid that works to alleviate poverty and facilitate the integration of indigenous locals to the global economy. Yet, the outcomes of such institutions have shown to destroy longstanding cultures, traditions, and languages. What might seem even more counterintuitive about the access of such education institutions is the erosion of domestic food security, and the displacement of youths away from their homelands in pursue of a ‘better’ future; a fantasy marketed to these soon-to-be educated future generations.

The erosion of Domestic Food Security

Although one might argue that education is one of the most impactful apparatus towards the alleviation of poverty, the film refutes that this misguide generations to sacrifice generations of learned knowledge; their traditions, languages, and their ability to produce food; a critical aspect of self sufficiency. Many find themselves pursuing a dream that is surreal rather than realistic. These ‘educated’ youths were sold to achieve aspirations and dreams of the western capitalism and consumerism. Yet, these educated rural youths found themselves discriminated within the cities they migrated after receiving education, many found themselves discriminated as urban dwellers viewed them as a lower social class, while others were simply denied appropriate and suitable jobs. These youths who traded generations of self-subsistence livelihoods for high school certificate found themselves living in urban slums of Mumbai, Calcutta, Beijing and other concrete jungles only to be minions of the corporate factories that place them marginally above the poverty line.

Education is key!

Education is a tool, it is an apparatus that facilitates communication and the exchange of ideas, thus providing education is not the root problem. Taking the entire western education and intentionally omitting educating locals of their own culture, traditions and knowledge is deemed paternalistic and intrusive. Donors and agencies often view short-term changes as positive impacts, whilst these institutions fail to understand their adverse impact on the community in the long run. The aspect of inclusivity should be incorporated, the education system introduced in such communities should be pedagogical such that it meets the needs of the communities, understanding mathematics and sciences fulfills spurs curiosity in the young minds of learners and provide the necessary basic foundation for further inquiry based learning. However, curriculum development within these communities should be bottom-up, listening and asking the locals what they ‘want’ and need. Incorporating knowledge from the elders is key to ensuring the continued proliferation of a community that is in the long run more sustainable than imposing and reinforcing a western education system.    Schooling the World: The White Man’s Last Burden Trailer

Many Asian countries particular China have embraced and funded the much-needed stimulus and investments that the West required. In fact, academics have put forth the argument that China the manufacturing colossal of the world is funding the continued consumption in the West.

Although observers have noted the increasing influence of China within the global financial and political stage, it is important for us to consider the possible social, political, economical discourses. The Economist reported within its annual publication “The World in 2013” summarized several concerns. It has highlighted several concerns about China; the first is the increase in wage rate, which suggest that China will soon lose its competitive advantage as its real wages rises above other ASEAN countries such as Indonesia, Philippines and Cambodia. China’s new leaders will also face several developmental challenges; One of which is that China will soon loss its population divided a consequence of its ‘One Child Policy” implemented during the 1960s, thus China will likely see a rise in demand for social services.

Despite China’s reputation as the manufacturing hub of the world, there have been numerous successful domestic consumer enterprises such as Haier and Wahaha. Such domestic consumer firms will seek to expand overseas as many industry players acknowledge that China’s economy will likely see a drop from double to single digit growth rates, a trend evident in transitory economies like China. China’s monetary stance will also be of interest; with continued economical growth and expansion the Chinese central bank will likely embrace the continued gradual appreciation of the Yuan. Many see this as a solution to addressing China’s current huge trade surplus, and high inflation. A revaluation of the currency will also benefit China with increasing acquisitions and overseas investment by China’s state-owned enterprises and domestic firms.

Other parts of Asia will also experience tremendous change. Indonesia and Philippines may in the near future replace China as the key manufacturing hubs of the world. However, it should also be noted that both countries will require substantial investment in infrastructure in order to sustain growth. These up and coming economies are socially and politically vulnerable, thus sound monetary and fiscal policies, coupled with effective policy instruments and execution is key to ensuring continued economic growth within the rest of Asia.

China’s Food safety issues: A critical look into the tainted pork industry

Between 1998 and 2007, China acknowledge 18 outbreaks of food related clenbuterol poisoning, and during the milk scandal of 2008, six babies died and 200,000 fell ill after consuming infant formula contaminated with melamine. Many critics of the livestock production industry have also noted the blatant use of antibiotics, growth hormones and low-grade animal feed, some of which were not suitable or even legal to be used as animal feed.

“The Australian” one of Australia’s largest news publishers reported that in early 2011 one hundred people that included a dozen government employees were sentenced to imprisonment due to a food scandal that was related to chemical laced pork product. The scandal involved several producers base in Henan province, numerous government officials and, Shuanghui Group, one of China’s largest food processor firm.  Convicted producers were charge with using the fat burning drug clenbuterol that would make meat leaner but is poisonous for human consumption. Clenbuterol causes nausea, dizziness, headaches and heart palpitations in humans. However, pig farmers were incentivized to use it as it yields leaner meat, which is more expensive than fatty meat.

This scandal also exposed the corruptibility of regulatory bodies within China’s food chain and the demise of business ethics. Xinhua News a Chinese online news agency reiterates that among those convicted were government employees that included animal health inspectors and food safety officials, they were convicted of negligence of duty and abuse of power. The clenbuterol poisoning case has not since been exterminated, instead as of the end of 2011 close to one thousand people from 63 cities nationwide have been convicted for the usage and sale of clenbuterol tainted meat products.

China’s Business ethics

In recent years public discontent has been on the rise supported by the numerous revelation of deadly food scandals. Many including international and domestic media often attributed it to rampant corruption throughout China’s bureaucracy. It is often the case that many will focus on blaming China’s political system, one however have to acknowledge that there is an apparent deterioration of morality in China’s so called market economy.

Two state ideology provided guidance within China’s traditional society – Confucianism and Communism. Confucianism teaches citizens that wealth has to be accumulated through rightful means, the Confucius adage states “A man of noble character acquires his wealth by just and ethical means”. The Maoist regime then emphasizes on “sacrificing the individual self to the collective”, this provided a moral check on people’s behavior.

The Cultural Revolution has since wiped out fundamental core values of Confucianism from modern day China.  While the rapid reform from a centrally planned economy to a market economy suggest that notions of collectivism and selflessness introduced by communism is seen as irrelevant and obsolete. Materialism and Consumerism is now the drivers of decisions within all institutions of China.  China’s currents state of decision drivers is a reflection of the words of the late political and reformist leader of the Communist Party of China, Deng Xiao Ping “To be wealthy is glorious”. Although materialism is also common in the west, religious views, well-enforced rules and regulations help define what is acceptable in business.

Food Safety: Changes, Suggestions, and Recommendations

The China Food Safety Law was introduced in June of 2009; this regulation was aimed at addressing the use of unauthorized food additives within the entire food chain and to raise the general safety level from ‘farm to fork’. But implementation of this law has been hindered by inefficiency and corruption. China’s recent administrative overhaul and one party system suggest that  ‘check and balance’ mechanisms were absent. The deficiency is even more apparent for provinces that were far away from Beijing, the center of the Chinese political power.

Today’s Chinese consumers live in a state of fear and distrust with the domestic food system. Despite the introduction of more stringent food safety polices and reassurances from the Chinese government, many would rather pay more for organic food products or imported foods. However, such products are often unaffordable for the average Chinese family. Even governmental bodies have a huge distrust with its own food systems. The China Posts reported in 2010 that all elites within the Chinese bureaucracy were known to consume mostly organic food produces and products. Chinese Olympic athletes were also advised by the National Sports committee to consume only organic sources of food.

Although addressing China’s qualitative challenges within China’ food system is not an easy task, a slew of structural changes could lead to much-needed change within China’s food system.   Below are some recommendations that could be considered by the Chinese government:

1. Ensure that regulatory agency such as the Provincial Food Inspection Agency have proper “Check and Balance” Mechanisms that could detect corruption

2. Set up ethical review panels throughout all provinces evaluating business and governmental practicing. Ensure ethical legislations are in place for all business and that they are enforce properly.

3. Introduce better food safety regulations and inspection practices by learning from food safety practices of the developed world that have a high track record of food safety. Eg Canada, Singapore, Europe

China’s organic food retail industry is miniscule compared to the western developed countries, however one would say that in recent years the organic food retail landscape in China is rapidly establishing itself fueled by numerous food scandals, diminishing consumer trust towards consuming non organic food products and rising consumer sophistication demanding high quality, ‘safer’, and natural food products.

China’s organic food consumers

Organic food consumers in China are likely to be based upon a variety of psychographics and demographics factors. Similar to most organic consumers in developed economies, these consumers normally hail from well off families, and usually possess high education levels.  Core consumers highlighted by the international trade center report published in 2011 comprise of people working for large or foreign companies, managerial staff, expatriate families and high-ranking government officials.

White collar families is one of major group of organic consumers in China. With high education levels and disposable incomes, these consumers are increasingly concerned about their own health and some are also interested in environmental protection and conservation.

The “One Child One Family Policy” has created millions of single child families, especially in cities. This policy has given rise to the ‘one child, six adults phenomenon’– mother, father, two grandfathers and two grandmothers – look after one child. This societal phenomenon thus acts as a catalyst for parents to select the best food possible for this child.  It was observed that in many such families, parents are young, highly educated, and knowledgeable about the health benefits of organic foods. They thus choose organic foods for themselves and their children. One characteristic unique to this consumer group is that within this consumer profile, some of which are indefinite consumers of organic food products, while others are only temporary organic consumers who stop buying products, such as baby food, as their children grow up.

China’s aging demographics due to its “one child policy” implemented in the late 1970s, and increase consumption of meat and high processed products have given rise to various health problems particularly the elderly. Common health problems are high blood pressure, cholesterol or blood sugar, or heart disease. These people are under medical treatment or in recovery and need to have healthy meals. Many of such consumers are also consumers of nutritional supplements. Such consumers belong to the middle or high-income demographics, of which they are also regular purchasers of various kinds of organic food products.

Overseas returnees who have studied abroad, totaling close to 500,000 young people according to governmental statistics are current and future potential consumers. (Euromonitor International, 2011) These young consumers have been exposed to high quality organic products within the areas they have resided overseas usually from areas with a well-developed organic food industry. These young consumers are quick to adapt to such lifestyle in the west, demanding high quality food products. Although individuals within this industry might have limited disposable income, they are likely to be willing to pay more for organic foods.

Foreign expatriates residing and working in China are consumers that possess a high disposable income and are consumers who are used to the availability and accessibility of organic food products. Interviews conducted in Beijing China, reveled that some of which are individuals who consume organic food products as part of their lifestyle while others choose organic food products due to the concerns of potential health hazards related to the over usage of fertilizers and pesticides on non-organic food products in China.

Food Safety Scandals in China and its impact on the organic food industry

In an always-connected society, shoppers will be more informed about health and safety issues with regard to both food and other consumer goods, and will become even more determined not to compromise on quality. This is especially true of China, where recent food safety scandals have gained maximum publicity and made consumers more prudent and demanding than ever.  Between 1998 and 2007, China acknowledge 18 outbreaks of food related clenbuteral poisoning, and during the milk scandal of 2008, six babies died and 200,000 were made ill after consuming infant formula contaminated with melamine (Euromonitor International, 2011).

Historically, markets have proved that food scandals and the loss of trust of non-organic food products prove to be a strong causality for the increase sales of organic food products. In 1989, 60 minutes, the popular and respected BCS telejournalism series, featured a segment on the possible health risks of Alar, an agriculture growth regulator used to ripen apples. The Alar scare term during the period had an immediate and profound effect on the organic food industry then in the US. Demand soon outstripped supply, with organic distributors reporting sales volume increases of 100% in the space of several weeks. Similarly, such phenomenon have been observed in recent years within China, with recent food scandals, china on the whole reported 30% year on year growth for organic and green food industry (Euromonitor International, 2011)

References

1. Lagos , Joshua. United States . USDA Foreign Agriculture Service. People’s Republic of China, Organic Report . 2010. Web. <http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent GAIN Publications/Organics Annual_Beijing_China – Peoples Republic of_10-14-2010.pdf>.

2. Euromonitor International, “Green Buying Behaviour Global Online Survey Strategic Analysis .” Last Modified 2011.  Accessed March, 2012.

3. International Trade Centre (ITC), “Organic Food Products in China.” Last modified 2011. Accessed June 28, 2012. http://www.standardsmap.org/uploadedFiles/intracenorg/Content/Publications/Organic-food-products-in-China-market-overview.pdf.

Redefining Communication

Social media is redefining the way we communicate and how information is disseminated. For a growing number of people, social media provides an alternative way of keeping in touch with friends, relatives and communities without any physical contact. Social media has enabled companies, organizations, and governments to reach large numbers of people beyond what was achievable using conventional communication mediums. At the same time, social media is changing the ways in which people interact with others, although the full impact of these changes is not yet clear, this medium of communication has facilitated the rise of an era of digital interaction and expression. While others might argue that social media encourages physical isolation, I perceive social media as a means to foster stronger relationships especially for individuals who face barriers of communication; in short, social media is providing ways of encouraging participation with community members and enhancing relationships.

The paradox of social media marketing

Conventional information sources such as the television, radio or the newspaper delivers information through a asymmetrical framework that does not allow direct feedback. Today, advertisements have penetrated a variety of social media platforms such as networking and social sites like Google plus, Facebook and Twitter. However, one unique characteristic of such social media platform is that receivers of this information are no longer passive listeners and observers; these sites provide empowerment.  Consumers now voice their opinions, complains, criticism about an advertisement, issue and product. Yet, the very ability of reacting positively or negatively aids in either enhancing the marketing prowess of a brand or product through word of mouth or rapidly tarnishing the image and reputation of the latter.

Digital Activism

Human expressions of courage, leadership, disappointment, anger and violence transcend the digital landscape effortlessly. Social media websites have shown to be platforms of such human expression. Over the years, celebrities and leaders are born just by an act caught on digital media and posted on the Internet. One would think that the paradigm of attaining fame or respect is through influence; social media reflects what might be an entire level of influence that knows no borders, race, religion nor ethnicity. A single person, art, film, speech could potentially influence millions of people through an online platform. One of such is TED Talks which has recently reached a total of 1 billion viewers to view and listen to inspiring and motivational speakers around the world. This incredible feat could be attributed to the unprecedented access to information that social media has supported.

We have acknowledge that social media is the new social apparatus of communication. Generations of youths and young adults have embraced social media as part of their everyday lives. This new tool has enabled consumer and user empowerment, which suggest that rapport could be build without any physical contact but through digital expressionism. Social discourses and ideas have never been as accessible globally without the existence of social media. Hence, social media will continue to play a pivotal role in catalyzing future ideas and influencing social and political changes throughout the world.

This blog will look at key issues addressing food security concerns. I will share and analyze global and regional issues related to Asia as a whole, specifically this blog will also touch on the key issues on South East Asia, China and India and The rise of the east and the current political discourses that is currently playing out in Asia. Understanding the context of structural matrixes and policy making in the Asian context will enable us to critically pursue issues related to food sovereignty and food security in Asia. The recent political and economical reforms by many asian economies plays a pivotal role for us to reflect upon Asia’s future food policies and security issues.