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The placebo effect: Its not just ‘in your head’

What if you switched out real medication for a sugar pill? By W. Carter via Wikimedia Commons

Why does the placebo effect work? Photo courtesy of W. Carter via Wikimedia Commons

The placebo effect is an amazing thing. What is going on for patients to feel better when they’ve been given nothing but a sugar pill? Is it ‘all in their heads’ or are there real changes occurring in their bodies? The placebo effect is thought to be somewhat of a sham by many. Has your pain really been treated if you are given a sugar pill you believe to be a pain killer? What if you rate your pain as decreased? Some people would argue no, but lets take a closer look at what that means.

The placebo effect was first described by a Dr. Henry Beecher, who was treating soldiers in the field during World War II. After running out of morphine, Dr. Beecher administered shots of saline solution instead without telling the soldiers. To his surprise, nearly half of them reported their pain had decreased. What he was witnessing was actually what we now call the placebo effect. Even today though, there are still a lot of unknowns surrounding the subject.

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Dr. Henry Beecher. Photo courtesy of Mathew Brady via Wikimedia Commons

One explanation for the placebo effect could be the ‘subject -expectancy effect”. Simply put, you thought the pills would make you feel better, so you felt better after taking them. Another explanation is that those susceptible to the placebo effect have been conditioned to feel better when taking medication. Perhaps these theories do hold some truth but what is really amazing about the placebo effect is that studies have shown actual changes in brain chemistry after a placebo has been taken. Studies have shown that taking a placebo can actually lead to increases in dopamine levels in the brain, acting similarly to how the actual drug should work.

The structure of dopamine, which can increase in your brain after taking a placebo pill. Photo courtesy of Wainscott DB1, Little SP, Yin T, Tu Y, Rocco VP, He JX, Nelson DL.  via Wikimedia Commons

The structure of dopamine, which can increase in your brain after taking a placebo pill. Photo courtesy of Wainscott DB1, Little SP, Yin T, Tu Y, Rocco VP, He JX, Nelson DL. via Wikimedia Commons

Whatever the mechanism behind why the placebo effect works the way it does, if it does improve symptoms, isn’t that enough to label it as ‘real’ or ‘effective’?

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References:

http://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/the-placebo-effect-amazing-and-real-201511028544

http://science.howstuffworks.com/life/inside-the-mind/human-brain/placebo-effect.htm

http://www.brainfacts.org/sensing-thinking-behaving/mood/articles/2012/the-power-of-the-placebo/

Virtual Reality- the evolution from 2D to 3D

On November 10th 2016, Sony released the latest product of their playstation series, ps4 pro. It is an advanced version of ps4, their previous product, with some improvement on the quality of hardware. The purpose of ps4 pro is to optimize the function of Playstation VR, which is a device that is used to play video games in virtual reality. Since last year, virtual reality has become one of the most popular words in the area of video game. So here comes the question: what is virtual reality and why the video game industries and players are excited about it?

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Virtual reality (VR) typically refers to computer technologies that use software to generate realistic images, sounds and other sensations that replicate a real environment (or create an imaginary setting), and simulate a user’s physical presence in this environment. This is experience is generally achieved with the help of specialized equipment such as VR google. In general, it is a technology that can generate any artificial three-dimensional environment within your imagination. After having a basic idea of what virtual reality is, it is easy to understand why video game lovers are so thrilled about it because video game is the most typical example of artificially-generated environment. Before the presence of VR, all of the games were produced in 2D, and players were never able to experience the world within the games personally. This situation changes after the existence of VR googles that are specified for video games. Besides having a better experience on games, VR can be applied in many practical areas too, such as military, engineering, and education. If the technology is matured enough, it is possible that VR can be applied in our chemistry laboratory work, which would be time and money efficient.

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Play station VR, a device used to play VR games https://www.playstation.com/en-ca/explore/playstation-vr/

So how dose VR work exactly. In general, I would summarize the working principles into three main areas: head tracking, motion tracking and eye tracking. Head tracking is the system that monitors the position of your head, so that the image you look will change if you move your head into another place. This is important because in reality, the image in front of us changed when we look at a different place. The second part is motion tracking, this is required because a game usually has a set of movements, and these movements must be achieved by the motion of the player. The final puzzle is the eye-tracking, this is a technology that tracks the movement and focus of your eyes. In reality, when your eyes is focused on a point, its surrounding will be a piece of blur to you, and this is what the system does, the appearance of images will change based on where your eyes are focused.

Although VR is an outstanding technology, there still some challenges now. The motion and eye tracking systems are still not very mature now, so the environment that is simulated by the equipment is actually not very realistic. Besides, it has very high requirement on hardware, therefore the cost is high. In order to have a decent experience on VR games at home, a person  needs at least a piece of VR google, a video game player, and a television with resolution up to 4K, the cost of them is incredibly high.

The popularization of VR games is becoming inevitable now because most players are very curious to know what a 3D video game fells like. And hopefully, in the future, VR will be applied widely in areas other than video games, which will make a evolutional change to our life.

References:

1, WAREABLE, URL: https://www.wareable.com/vr/how-does-vr-work-explained

 

Computers can grow our food in the future?!

When we think about growing food on a farm, all we can see is that farmers have to work 24 hours a day and collect all the main crops during harvest without having rest. According to the most recent survey, more than 80% of the teenagers in Africa do not want to be farmers when they grow up (1). It is generally acknowledged that farmers in most of the countries have the least income as well as a poor educational background.

Caleb Harper, also known as the director of media lab in MIT (2), is developing a new technology which is called “digital farm.” It is unbelievable that this technology can actually lead to an astonishing agricultural revolution. By using computer science and engineering, we can grow plants in only three weeks without using soil, 95% water (3) and heavy labor. Vegetables or fruits which grow under such controlled environment will also be more delicious than normal food that grows inside common farms.

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Graph 1: the First vertical urban farm in North America(Canada) Posted by Ed. Source: https://www.indoorfarmer.ca/2-uncategorised/28-north-america-s-first-vertical-urban-farm-is-being-built-in-canada

In the natural environment, only the “perfect” habitat can provide enough nutrients and conditions to grow delicious vegetables and fruits. However, how can we define “perfect” ? In Xinjiang, China, fruits are very sweet and juicy due to the special climate. During daytime, under the exposure of strong sunlight, the process of photosynthesis(4) can be very productive. During the night, plants will breathe and consume energy which is produced from photosynthesis(4). However, when local plants breathe through the stomata on their leafs, because of the super cool temperature in Xinjiang during the night, the stomata on leafs is closed to protect the plant itself. Therefore, the respiration process is much slower and less energy is consumed in the form of glucose. Consequently, all the sweetness which is created by glucose just accumulates inside the fruits.  (5) Consequently, we can see that how environmental conditions can actually change the tastes of fruits and vegetables.

Inside the media lab, scientists are using the computer to monitor the environment. All important factors for growing plants, such as temperature, humidity, UV-light exposure will be controlled, which can lead to a special “climate” inside a small room. After multiple experiments, the “perfect” condition can be found. The desirable tastes of all types of food can be achieved through changing every small scale of the different environmental factor. With this technology, the cost of international transportation will be largely reduced. Furthermore, because no soil is needed in digital lab, heavy labor is also not required during harvest season.

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There is a growing tendency that  scientists and university students are willing to donate themselves to this research area. In other words, more and more young people are willing to be “farmers”, and they are both computer scientists, engineers, chemists, biologists…  In the future, farmers will not be a job that everyone dislikes. In my opinion, “digital lab” can not only protect our local environment but also can improve the educational system of agriculture. The food industry needs more people with abilities. In the future, “farmers” will be high-paid jobs around the globe, and I have faith that together, we can make this world a better place.

Reference:

  1. Youth in farming: Youth using ICTS to earn incomes in running agricultural farms. http://www.youthinfarming.org/2011/12/15-major-reasons-youth-in-africa-do-not.html
  2. Caleb Harper | MIT media lab. https://www.media.mit.edu/people/calebh
  3. Vertical Farming in Singapore– The future of agriculture. http://permaculturenews.org/2014/07/25/vertical-farming-singapores-solution-feed-local-urban-population/
  4. Chemistry for biologists–Photosynthesis. http://permaculturenews.org/2014/07/25/vertical-farming-singapores-solution-feed-local-urban-population/
  5. Respiration in plants. http://www.funscience.in/study-zone/Biology/Respiration/RespirationInPlants.php

Body-Hacking: The Search for Cyborgs

Tattoos, piercings, and other body modifications have slowly become the norm in everyday society. Items such as earrings have even become standards in fashion. Such modifications have been proven over time to be harmless to the human body, but recently a small association of body modding enthusiasts have taken it to the next level.

In risk of causing harm to their own bodies, these curious experimenters have began to incorporate different gadgets into their bodies in order to add more function to the human body. From sensing the north pole to seeing in the dark, these curious individuals seek to find ways to integrate technology into themselves.

Cool side effects of inserting a magnet into your finger includes neat party tricks. (Image courtesy of Dann Berg)

Using themselves as guinea pigs, the researchers (also known as grinders)have slowly and steadily in progress. From the initial stages of inserting magnets into their hands to feel for electronic signals, they have now been able to do much more miraculous things such as planting a solar panel under their skin as well as inject a special chlorophyll mixture into their eyes to give themselves temporary increased night vision.

Body-hacker Gabriel Licina after being treated with a night-vision enhancing called Chlorin e6. (Image courtesy of Science.Mic)

While grinders have been largely successful in the research thus far, they have not been able to fully test for safety considerations, but it seems to be a price that they are willing to take. Many tests are done in private locations with limited safety and sanitation abilities, but these conditions do not seem to deter the enthusiasts. In fact, the ever-growing community has planned a convention in 2017 for fellow grinders to meet and discuss their results.

By risking themselves to propel science forward, perhaps a cyborg future isn’t as far as it seems.

 

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-Dennis Lin

 

 

Reference:

9 Crazy Body Hacks that Give You Superhuman Powers. Popular Science. Sept. 8, 2015. http://www.popsci.com/9-body-hacks-superhuman-powers (Accessed Nov 11, 2016)

Body-hackers: the people who turn themselves into cyborgs. The Guardian. Aug. 15, 2015. https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/architecture-design-blog/2015/aug/14/body-hackers-the-people-who-turn-themselves-into-cyborgs (Accessed Nov 12, 2016)

The Fluoride Toothpaste

The Fluoride Toothpaste

Toothpaste plays an important role in our daily life, it provides a fresh smell for our breath and prevents our teeth. However, have you ever pay attention the ingredients of the toothpaste? Are the ingredients really good for teeth and your health?

In the markets, toothpastes can be divided into two main categories. One contains fluoride, and the other does not have fluoride. Why does toothpaste contain fluoride? And is fluoride good for our teeth?

toothpaste.Source from http://www.clipartkid.com/toothpaste-cliparts/

The existence of fluoride in toothpaste can help remove plaque, which is a fill of bacteria that forms on teeth and gums everyday. The bacteria remains on teeth can cause teeth decay, therefore it is necessary to use fluoride to remove plaque and make teeth stronger. What is more, fluoride helps to repair the enamel by replenishing the lost calcium and phosphorous to keep the teeth hard.

However, some people should not use fluoride contained toothpaste. For example, child under two years old should use fluoride free toothpaste. It is very likely for children to swallow too much fluoride since they cannot spit out toothpaste very well. And if too much fluoride is taken by children, it can cause dental fluorosis. The discoloration and pitting are very likely to appear on the teeth. Not only the teeth will be coated by brown spots, also teeth may feel rough.

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Children with toothpaste. Source from http://www.illustrationsof.com/438660-royalty-free-toothpaste-clipart-illustration

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Nowadays, in order to ensure the water quality, the fluoride is added into drnking water. And some food, beverages and other sources may contain fluoride as well. Even for an adult, it is not good when excess fluoride is taken into the body. In order to be good got teeth and health, it is better to speak with a dentist and according to your current fluoride intake to decide if a fluoride toothpaste is suitable for you or not.

References:

Learn More About Toothpaste. http://www.ada.org/en/science-research/ada-seal-of-acceptance/product-category-information/toothpaste. (assessed Nov 12th 2016).

Why Use A Fluoride Free Toothpaste? http://www.colgate.com/en/us/oc/oral-health/basics/fluoride/article/sw-281474979286061. (assessed Nov 12th 2016).

Is Organic Food Healthier Than Conventional Foods?

Everyone is trying to eat healthy, and we know that means choosing plenty of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and lean protein. But as we wander the aisles of our local market, checking out the fresh produce, meats, and dairy products, we realize there’s another choice to make: Should we buy organic?
What does organic mean? Organic agriculture is an ecological production management system that promotes and enhances biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. It is based on minimal use of off-farm inputs and on management practices that restore, maintain and enhance ecological harmony.
Advocates say organic food is safer, possibly more nutritious, and often better tasting than non-organic food. They also say organic production is better for the environment and kinder to animals. Also, more and more shoppers seem convinced, but many experts say there’s not enough evidence to prove any real advantage to eating organic foods.
A team led by Bravata, a senior affiliate with Stanford’s Center for Health Policy, and Crystal Smith-Spangler, MD, MS, an instructor in the school’s Division of General Medical Disciplines and a physician-investigator at VA Palo Alto Health Care System, did the most comprehensive meta-analysis to date of existing studies comparing organic and conventional foods. For their study, the researchers sifted through thousands of papers and identified 237 of the most relevant to analyze. Those included 17 studies (six of which were randomized clinical trials) of populations consuming organic and conventional diets, and 223 studies that compared either the nutrient levels or the bacterial, fungal or pesticide contamination of various products (fruits, vegetables, grains, meats, milk, poultry, and eggs) grown organically and conventionally. There were no long-term studies of health outcomes of people consuming organic versus conventionally produced food; the duration of the studies involving human subjects ranged from two days to two years.
After analyzing the data, the researchers found little significant difference in health benefits between organic and conventional foods. No consistent differences were seen in the vitamin content of organic products, and only one nutrient — phosphorus — was significantly higher in organic versus conventionally grown produce (and the researchers note that because few people have phosphorous deficiency, this has little clinical significance). There was also no difference in protein or fat content between organic and conventional milk, though evidence from a limited number of studies suggested that organic milk may contain significantly higher levels of omega-3 fatty acids.
The researchers were also unable to identify specific fruits and vegetables for which organic appeared the consistently healthier choice, despite running what Bravata called “tons of analyses.”
“Some believe that organic food is always healthier and more nutritious,” said Smith-Spangler, who is also an instructor of medicine at the School of Medicine. “We were a little surprised that we didn’t find that.”

The Possibility of Time Travel

Time travel has always been a fascination of humanity. The idea of peering into our future or exploring the past is a captivating one. As a consequence, time travel plays a large role in science fiction and many of the genres famous films are centered around time travel: Back to the Future, Planet of the Apes (1968), Minority Report, 12 Monkeys, Looper, and The Terminator. Even Charles Dickens featured time travel in his novella, A Christmas Carol (1843) .

Is time travel possible today? Yes! At least that’s what the people at the Alcor Life Extension Foundation would have you believe. Alcor sells the idea of time travel by means of cryonics, a process in which a person is frozen after death to preserve their body so that, in the far future, advanced technology can revive them. Cryonics have been a subject of scientific skepticism, due in large to the unproven technology which has yet to reanimate anybody. In fact, here in British Columbia is it illegal to sell your body for preservation by cryonics.

Max More presentation.

Max More. Credit to null0 on flickr (2006)

Despite this, preservation by cryonics has been around since the 1960s  and is commercially available today. Cryonics markets immortality and makes people like Max More, the President of Alcor, $200,000 per person on top of subscription fees.

 

 

Cryonics was addressed on an episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation.

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Albert Einstein. Credit to ebravolosada on flickr

Time travel is possible in another way, using Einstein’s theories of relativity.
Special relativity states that time passes more slowly for objects moving at a greater velocity relative to the observer. Einstein’s theories are not strictly theoretical; his ideas of time dilation have been experimentally proven. Humans have already achieved time travel like this. For example, after spending 342 days in the international space station, astronaut Scott Kelly has aged about 8.6 milliseconds less than his twin brother. This is because the ISS orbits around the Earth at approximately 7658 m/s relative to the surface.

Einstein’s theory of general relativity sates that time slows down in strong gravitational fields. The possibilities of this type of time travel are expressed well in the movie Interstellar when astronauts explore a planet with an orbit close to a supermassive black hole.

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The methods of time travel that I have described focused on traveling to the future. This is because traveling to the past seems less plausible and more difficult to accomplish. According to the theory of relativity, an object would need to move faster than light to move backwards in time, a feat that would require an infinite amount of energy. In addition, Stephen Hawking suggested that the absence of visitors from the future gives evidence against the existence of backward time travel.

-Kevin O’Connor (Nov. 12, 2016)

 

Reference

Interstellar Science: ‘That’s Relativity’. The Huffington Post. 2015. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/jeffrey-bennett/interstellar-science-that_b_6130228.html (accessed Nov. 12, 2016)

Is e-cigarette really SAFER than traditional cigarette?

SYDNEY, AUSTRALIA - AUGUST 01: In this photo illustration a man smokes on August 1, 2013 in Sydney, Australia. In a plan announced today, the government will increase the excise on tobacco by 12.5 per cent annually over the next four years, raising over AUD$5 billion. The hike is estimated to increase the cost of cigarettes by AUD$5 by 2016, and is the first increase in the tobacco excise since 2010. (Photo by Cameron Spencer/Getty Images)

Figure 1: An image of smoking taditional cigarettes. Author: Cameron Spencer from Getty Images. Source: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/03/26/cigarette-smoking-decline_n_6855468.html

Smoking tobacco is commonly known to pose negative health effects to both smokers, and non-smokers as non-smokers receive second-hand smoke.  Overexposure to tobacco-smoke can cause cancer, respiratory and cardiovascular diseases (1), which increase mortality. Statistically, there is one out of five deaths in the United States caused by smoking cigarettes (1). However, manufacturers claim these statistics do not apply to electronic cigarette or also known as e-cigarette.

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Figure 2: An image of smoking e-cigarettes. Author: Kenzo Tribouillard. Source: https://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/aug/13/health-bosses-promote-e-cigarettes-harmful-tobacco-smoking-experts

E-cigarettes are battery-powered devices, which heats a chemical mixture inside a  cartridge to produce tiny airborne particles called aerosol vapour (2). Users inhale the aerosol vapour for nicotine-intake, which nicotine is a highly-addictive chemical found in conventional cigarette. However, the difference between traditional cigarette and e-cigarette is the latter does not burn tobacco (3). The reason why e-cigarettes has become a popular alternative to traditional cigarette is because there are different flavors of vapours are produced, such as candy and fruit flavors, that appeal adolescences. Also, manufactures claim e-cigarettes are “safer” than traditional cigarettes because they deliver nicotine without burning tobacco (2). However, is e-cigarette truly a safer alternative? Or do e-cigarettes exposes someone to a toxic level of nicotine-intake?

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Figure 3: The statistic showing the percertage of high-school students using tobacco-containing product from 2011 to 2015. Author: T. Singh et al. Source: https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/teen-vaping-soars-past-cigarette-use

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Tushar Singh, an officer in the department of smoking and health at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta, reports the use of e-cigarettes by high-school students increased from an estimated 2% in 2011 to 16% in 2015 (4). Comparing to the statistic for regular cigarette use by high school students, it has dropped from an approximate of 15% in 2011 to 10% in 2015 (4). These statistics show an increasing trend in e-cigarettes use, and a decreasing trend in traditional cigarette use. One reason why there is a rising tendency for teenagers to start smoking e-cigarettes is because they perceive vaping as a harmless behavior relative to the use of regular cigarettes. Also, they can easily purchase vaping supplies through online stores without a substantial hindrance (4). Some researchers suggest that some types of e-cigarettes contain a harmful amount of nicotine that is capable of killing an adult (4). Therefore, a prevalence of e-cigarette use in teenagers means there are more teenagers susceptible to nicotine addiction. To eradicate the e-cigarette culture among teenagers, the government should strictly regulate how e-cigarette producers are sold, and how e-cigarettes are advertised.

In my opinion, more research should be done on health effects associated with e-cigarettes. It may be true that e-cigarettes are considered a safer alternative of traditional cigarettes. However, the health risks related to long term usage of e-cigarettes are still unknown. Rules or laws should be strictly enforced to regulate the online stores from selling cigarettes to underage people.

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References:

  1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Tobacco-related mortality. https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/dangerous-rise-electronic-cigarettes (accessed on Nov 10th, 2016).
  2. Science News for Students. Science & Society: The dangerous rise of e-cigarettes . https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/dangerous-rise-electronic-cigarettes (accessed on Nov 10th, 2016).
  3. National Institute on Drug Abuse. Drug Facts: Electronic Cigarettes. https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/electronic-cigarettes-e-cigarettes (accessed on Nov 10th, 2016).
  4. Science News for Students. Behaviour, Science and Society: Teen vaping soars past cigarette use. https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/teen-vaping-soars-past-cigarette-use (accessed on Nov 10th, 2016).

Effects of Caffeine in Our System

At some point in your life you may have gotten only a couple hours of sleep or even pulled an all-nighter for an exam or a project. A quick solution to sleep deprivation is often coffee, energy drinks, soft drinks, or tea, to name a few. All of these drinks have a common ingredient, caffeine (1).

Caffeine is a molecule that stimulates activity in the central nervous system (3). Caffeine inhibits binding of adenosine, which is a type of neurotransmitter that is essential in promoting sleep in the central nervous system, to cell receptors (4).

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There are evidence to support that ingesting caffeine is an effective way in compensating for sleep deprivation. The researchers at the University of Sfax in Tunisia concluded from a study that ingesting caffeine can improve physical and cognitive performances, and counteract 36 hours of sleep deprivation (5). Souissi and colleagues conducted the study using 13 healthy male students with similar height, age, and weight (5).

Some participants were given 8.5 hours of rest and/or sleep time, while the other participants were sleep deprived for 36 hours by keeping televisions on throughout the sleeping hours (5). Then the participants from each group either ingested a placebo, which is essentially a sugar pill, or a caffeine pill (5). The participants’ physical and cognitive performances were measured by squat jump performances and the Wingate anaerobic test using a cycle ergometer (5). The Wingate test is generally used to measure the energy output of a person’s anaerobic cycling performance (2). The participants’ reaction time were determined from both squat jump performance and Wingate anaerobic test (5). By comparing the reaction times of both groups, the researchers concluded that ingesting caffeine improved cognitive and physical performances more prominently for the group that was deprived of sleep for 36 hours(5). Hence, caffeine has its benefits in helping us function on days when we are sleep deprived.

Although caffeine has its benefits on improving physical and cognitive performances over a short time period, caffeine should be consumed in moderation. Higher doses of caffeine can result in numerous side effects which include insomnia, tremor, headaches, and cardiovascular and respiratory failures (3). Perhaps further studies should be conducted on the relative effects of caffeine on people that differ in age, height, weight, health, and other factors compared to the participants in Souissi and colleagues’ study.

–Gloria Kwong

 

References:

  1. Bender, D. A. A Dictionary of Food and Nutrition: Caffeine (4th edition). Oxford University Press, 2014. http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191752391.001.0001/acref-9780191752391-e-960?rskey=reGySA&result=1 (accessed November 5, 2016).
  2. Beneke, R.; Pollmann, C.; Bleif, I.; Leithauser, R.; Hutler, M. How anaerobic is the Wingate Anaerobic Test for humans. Eur. J. App. Physiology, 2002, 87, 388-392. http://link.springer.com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/article/10.1007%2Fs00421-002-0622-4 (accessed November 5, 2016).
  3. Colman, A. M. A Dictionary of Psychology: Caffeine (4th edition). Oxford University Press, http://www.oxfordreference.com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/view/10.1093/acref/9780199657681.001.0001/acref-9780199657681-e-1217 (accessed November 5, 2016).
  4. Roehrs, T.; Roth, T. Caffeine: Sleep and daytime sleepiness. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 2008, 12, 153-162. http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/science/article/pii/S1087079207000937?np=y (accessed November 5, 2016)
  5. Souissi, M.; Chtourou, H.; Abedelmalek, S.; Ghozlane, I. B.; Sahnoun, Z. The effects of caffeine ingestion on the reaction time and short-term maximal performance after 36 h of sleep deprivation. Physiology and Behaviour, 2014, 131, 1-6. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031938414002030 (accessed November 3, 2016)

Turning CO2 back into fuel

Typically, when you burn a hydrocarbon fuel, you get waste products like CO2, a serious greenhouse gas. But what if we could turn CO2 back into fuel? A research team at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee has made a breakthrough: they found a simple method to do just that. By embedding copper into nanospikes, they were able to make a powerful electrocatalyst that works something like many tiny lightning rods, which concentrate an electric field. This is able to turn CO2 into ethanol.

The reaction starts by reducing CO2 to carbon monoxide, CO. Then two CO molecules connect to form a dimer with the two carbon atoms bonded to each other. Finally, this dimer is reduced, removing an oxygen atom and gains hydrogen atoms. Although they initially believed this process would produce methanol, the final product is actually ethanol.

The structure of ethanol.

The structure of ethanol. This public domain image is from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ethanol-2D-flat.png.

The process is fairly efficient, but not efficient enough to use on an industrial scale yet. The electrons have a yield of 63 percent, meaning only 27 percent of electrons will be “lost” during the reaction, mostly being taken up by hydrogen. The CO2 has a yield of 84 percent. The energy efficiency is not as good, only around 20 percent. On the positive side, the process only needs common materials, such as carbon, nitrogen, copper, and CO2.

It is hoped that this process will someday help reduce CO2 added to the atmosphere. Since it uses CO2 as a reagent, it would only add about as much to the atmosphere as it removes. The reaction could even work as efficient, clean energy storage – excess energy from renewable sources could be used to convert CO2 into ethanol, storing it as chemical energy for later use. However, it is still in development and has a long ways to go before it’s ready for large-scale use.

~ Nat Shipp

 

Sources:

Popular Mechanics – Meet the scientists turning CO2 into ethanol

Discover – Nanospikes Convert Carbon Dioxide Back Into Ethanol

Oak Ridge National Laboratory – Nano-spike catalysts convert carbon dioxide directly into ethanol

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