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LIFE-SAVING IMPROVEMENTS To Blood Transfusions

Posted on April 10, 2020 | Leave a comment

Have you ever ended up in the hospital and needed a blood transfusion? Well, that’s about to get a whole lot easier for people everywhere! An article published by Nature Microbiology in June 2019 by Dr. Stephen Withers, studied a new method in converting type A blood to the universal type O blood using bacteria found in the human gut! [1] 

A team led by Dr. Stephen Withers at the University of British Columbia has developed a method which would eliminate the need for blood-type compatibility, reducing the risks of blood transfusions.  

What are blood types? 

There are 8 different blood types, and before these findings, these blood types were not all compatible with each other. Each blood type can only receive from other specific types.  

In human bodies, there are 8 types of red blood cells. These types are determined by two factors: Blood Groups and Rh Factors. 

We have 4 different blood groups: A, B, AB and O, different blood groups carry different signals (see Image 1).O-type cells do not carry any signals.

 Similarly, Rh-positive red blood cells carry another signal, and Rh-negative cells carry nothing. Blood groups and Rh factors are combined, so that we have blood types such as A positive, O negative, etc.

Image depicting the different signals on red blood cells. Created by Eric Ding using PowerPoint.

If we transfuse  O negative cells, which do not carry any signals, they can be recognized by anyone with any type of blood. 

 However, if we transfuse A positive red blood cells to a patient with AB negative blood, the immune system can recognize the triangle signal, but not the rectangular signal. The body will consider A positive red blood cells as enemies and attack them. This reaction can be fatal.

This problem has existed since blood transfusions were first scientifically achieved, and scientists have been looking for a solution for just as long. It turns out the solution was hiding right under our noses; inside our stomachs, to be specific!

The findings

Inside the human gut are thousands of microscopic bacteria which we use to digest food and convert it into energy. As it turns out, these bacteria are very good at safely interacting with the human body in helpful ways.

The researchers removed these bacteria through human faeces and found they could be used in exactly the way they were hoping. “Why would they be looking in our stomachs for this solution?” you might ask.

 The Withers group were on a hunt for a special kind of protein called an enzyme. Enzymes are produced by the body with a very specific task, and that task varies based on what the body wants it to do.

 Since our gut has the ability to process blood and turn it into energy, Withers and his team decided to see if these enzymes could be harnessed for their research.  As it turns out, they were completely correct.

An enzyme interacting with a specific molecule (known as the substrate) and cutting it into two different products. Modified from Wikipedia Commons.

The group screened more than 20,000 samples to find two enzymes that were particularly good at cutting the signal on A-type blood leaving us with O-type blood. These were removed from the body and tested on real red blood cells.  

The researchers discovered that the enzymes could efficiently cut the specific part of the A-type blood, essentially leaving us with type O red blood cells.

 These two types of enzymes were 30 times more efficient than previous methods, which means we only need a tiny amount of these enzymes to convert A, B, and AB types of red blood cells to O type red blood cells.

Impacts

In January 2020, the American Red Cross announced that it has a ‘critical’ shortage of type O blood. In the United States and Canada alone, 4.5 million patients need blood transfusions every year.[2] 

This high demand means that oftentimes, the supply cannot meet the demand.

 With this new discovery, incompatible blood types can be made compatible. This would increase the supply of compatible blood, which means more people can be helped.

While the process has been completed in the lab, it has yet to be scaled up to convert massive amounts of blood at a time.  This may take some time to accomplish. 

However, countless people will be helped and countless lives will be saved. And if one thing is for certain, it’s that blood donations will forever be easier.

References
  1. Rahfeld, P., Sim, L., Moon, H., Constantinescu, I., Morgan-Lang, C., Steven, J. H., Kizhakkedathu, J. N., Withers, S. G.; An enzymatic pathway in the human gut microbiome that converts A to universal O type blood. Nature Microbiology. 2019, 1475-1485.
  2. Community Blood Bank of Northwest Pennsylvania and Western New York. 56 facts about blood. https://fourhearts.org/facts/ (accessed March 22, 2020)

– Griffin Bare, Eric Ding, Chantell Jansz

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Life-saving improvements to blood transfusion

Posted on March 30, 2020 | Leave a comment

An article published by Nature Microbiology in June 2019, studied a new method in converting type A blood to the universal type O blood using bacteria found in the human gut! [1] A team led by Dr. Stephen Withers at the University of British Columbia has developed a method which would eliminate the need for blood-type compatibility, reducing the risks of blood transfusions.  

There are 8 different blood types, and before these findings, these blood types were not all compatible with each other. Each blood type can only receive from other specific types.  When doctors are going to transfuse blood to patients, they need to match the type of blood to one that can safely match with the patient’s blood type. If they don’t, the body will not know how to handle the new type of blood. This can cause blood vessels to rupture, which can be fatal.

This problem has existed since blood transfusions were first scientifically achieved, and scientists have been looking for a solution for just as long. It turns out the solution was hiding right under our noses; inside our stomachs, to be specific!

Inside the human gut are thousands of microscopic bacteria which we use to digest food and convert it into energy. As it turns out, these bacteria are very good at safely interacting with the human body in helpful ways. The researchers extracted these microorganisms through human faeces and found they could be used in exactly the way they were hoping.

         “Why would they be looking in our stomachs for this solution?” you might ask. The Withers group were on a hunt for a special kind of protein called an enzyme. Enzymes are produced by the body with a very specific task, and that task varies based on what the body wants it to do. Since our gut has the ability to process blood and turn it into energy, Withers and his team decided to see if these enzymes could be harnessed for their research.  As it turns out, they were completely correct.

An enzyme interacting with a specific molecule (known as the substrate) in the body.[2]

The group screened more than 20,000 samples to find two enzymes that were particularly good at cleaving the A-type blood. These were extracted and tested on real red blood cells and found that the enzymes could efficiently cleave a specific part of the A-type blood, essentially leaving us with type O red blood cells. These two types of enzymes were 30 times more efficient than previous methods, which means we only need a tiny amount of these enzymes to convert A, B, and AB types of red blood cells to O type red blood cells.

Image depicting the difference between blood types A, O, and B. The image shows that removing the yellow square in A type blood, is the same as O type blood. Modified from [1].

In January 2020, the American Red Cross announced that it has a ‘critical’ shortage of type O blood. In the United States and Canada alone, 4.5 million patients need blood transfusions every year.[3] This high demand means that oftentimes, the supply cannot meet the demand. With this new discovery, incompatible blood types can be made compatible. This would increase the supply of compatible blood, which means more people can be helped.

While the process has been completed in the lab, it has yet to be scaled up to convert massive amounts of blood at a time.  This may take some time to accomplish. However, it is impossible to quantify exactly how many people this new method will help, or even how many lives it will save. One thing is for certain, the world of blood donations will forever feel the impact of these findings.

References
  1. Rahfeld, P., Sim, L., Moon, H., Constantinescu, I., Morgan-Lang, C., Steven, J. H., Kizhakkedathu, J. N., Withers, S. G.; An enzymatic pathway in the human gut microbiome that converts A to universal O type blood. Nature Microbiology. 2019, 1475-1485.
  2. Western Oregon University: Chemistry. CH450 and CH451: Biochemistry – Defining Life at the Molecular Level. Chapter 6: Enzyme Principles and Biotechnological Applications. https://wou.edu/chemistry/courses/online-chemistry-textbooks/ch450-and-ch451-biochemistry-defining-life-at-the-molecular-level/chapter-7-enzyme-kinetics/ (accessed Mar 21, 2020)
  3. Community Blood Bank of Northwest Pennsylvania and Western New York. 56 facts about blood. https://fourhearts.org/facts/ (accessed March 22, 2020)

– Griffin Bare, Eric Ding, Chantell Jansz

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Novel method of converting any blood type to the universal O

Posted on March 23, 2020 | Leave a comment

A journal article published by Nature in June 2019, studied a novel method in converting type A blood to the universal type O blood using bacteria found in poop! The Withers’ research group at the University of British Columbia used the DNA of bacteria found in the faecal samples to develop this efficient method.

HOW ARE BLOOD TYPES CLASSIFIED?

There are four main blood types: A, B, AB, O.

Blood type is determined by the type of antigens and antibodies present in the blood. Antibodies are part of your body’s defense system, if they sense germs (or any other foreign substance) they alert your immune system which stimulates a biological response to destroy said germs.

Antigens are proteins that are directly attached to red blood cells that are used to identify blood as A, B, AB or O. Antigens are also attached to foreign substances, and antibodies use them as indicators that a substance does not belong in the body. Figure 1 shows how antibodies interact with antigens.

Figure 1: Image of antibody interacting with an antigen. Obtained from Wikipedia commons.

For example, if you have type A blood then your red blood cells will have A antigens. However, your blood will have type B antibodies. This means that the immune system will attack any substance with B antibodies – including type B blood. This explains why individuals who get blood transfusions can only accept their same blood type, unless it is the universal type O.

Universal type O blood doesn’t have any antigens so anyone can accept O blood as their antibodies will not attack the red blood cells. Figure 2 shows the different blood groups and how they are classified.

Figure 2: Image of different blood types depicting what antigens and antibodies they contain. Obtained from Wikipedia commons.

RESULTS OF THE STUDY

Figure 3 shows an in depth depiction of the difference in antigens between the blood groups.

Figure 3: In depth image depicting the different constituents of antigens on type A, O and B blood. Obtained from journal article “An enzymatic pathway in the human gut microbiome that converts A to universal O type blood”

The researchers of this study, synthesized  enzymes from the bacterial DNA found in poop. Enzymes are a type of protein that aid in the reactivity of a reaction, essentially meaning they help a reaction occur faster by breaking down substances. Figure 4 demonstrates how enzymes break down substances known as substrates.

Figure 4: Image depicting how enzymes break down substances into two products. Obtained from Wikipedia commons.

In this case, the researches synthesized an enzyme that break down the bond labelled ‘3-α’ in type A and B blood cells (Figure 3). Once this bond is broken down, you are left with type O blood. The enzyme that Dr. Stephen Withers group identified, breaks down this bond 30 times faster than the previous candidate.

WHAT ARE THE IMPLICATIONS?

In January 2020, the American Red Cross announced that it has a ‘critical’ shortage of type O blood.

With this new method, hospitals and relief organizations, such as the American Red Cross, can convert type A and B blood to the universal O. It is vital that hospitals and relief organizations have a constant supply of O blood in case they need to do blood transfusions without knowing the blood type of the patient. It could also completely eliminate the need for blood type compatibility, if the research leaves the lab.

This enzyme is 30 times faster and, thus, more efficient than the previous candidate. This means that less of this enzyme is required to convert the same amount of blood, drastically decreasing the cost of production.

Overall, not only is this new method interesting to the science community but is is also incredibly important to the healthcare system.

 

-Chantell Jansz

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Biodegradable, what does it really mean?

Posted on March 16, 2020 | 5 comments

Plastic pollution is one of the major issues effecting the marine environment today.

A study published on February 13 2015 by Science investigated the input of plastic into the oceans from land. Using worldwide data, the study estimated that 192 coastal countries generated 275 million metric tons (MT) of plastic waste in 2010 alone, with 4.8-12.7 million MT of that waste entering the ocean.

Marine debris that was washed ashore covers a beach on Laysan Island in the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge. (Susan White/USFWS)

What is bioplastic?

Bioplastics are plastics that are partially made of biological materials like wheat, maize, and tapioca.  Being made of biological material does not mean that bioplastics can be broken down by fungi and bacteria. Essentially, being bioplastic does not necessarily mean that the material is truly biodegradable.

Examples of non-biodegradable bioplastics include bio-based Polyethylene terephthalate and Polyethylene which make up everyday items such as bottles and carry bags.

There are bioplastics that can degrade in the environment, given specific conditions. For example, Kale et al. published a study in 2007 that investigated the biodegradation of polylactide bottles. The study found these bottles degrade after 30 days when buried in soil, at relatively high temperatures.

What is biodegradable plastic?

The definition of biodegradable is the break down of substances into inorganic materials, such as water and oxygen.

“This word ‘biodegradable’ has become very attractive to people trying to make quick bucks on it,” explains Ramani Narayan, a professor of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering at Michigan State University, who helped develop biodegradable corn-based plastic.

Typically, companies make plastics that degrade into smaller particles faster and then claim that they are ‘biodegradable’ says Narayan. Figure 2 shows the relative rates of degradation of various materials. Even though they are claimed to be biodegradable, they still take large amounts of time to degrade into smaller particles – which are no better for the environment.

Figure 2: Image depicting the relative rates of degradation for various materials. Obtained from creative commons.

Why does this matter?

The general public does not know the difference between bioplastics and biodegradable plastics. They also do not know that companies use the term ‘biodegradable’ lightly – and just because plastics claim to be biodegradable does not mean they actually are. This would cause people to assume that using and disposing of bio- and biodegradable plastics is safe for the environment, when that is not the case.

This discarded plastic would eventually find its way into the ocean, further increasing the plastic pollution in the marine environment. Plastic debris in the ocean is known to increase the rate of ingestion, suffocation and entanglement of hundreds of marine species – often resulting in death.

It is important to know the distinction between bio- and biodegradable when using plastics, such that they can be disposed/recycled in the appropriate manner.

The easiest solution would be to minimize your plastic use entirely, to reduce the rate of plastics entering the ocean and reduce the endangering of wildlife.

 

-Chantell Jansz

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Dogs resemble their owners, finds study

Posted on February 24, 2020 | 5 comments

Dog and his owner. Photo by Thomas Hawk on Flickr

Have you ever heard the adage “Dogs resemble their owners?”

A psychological study by Michael Roy and Nicholas Christenfeld published in 2004 by Psychology Science  found that our canine companions actually look like us!

THE  RESULTS

The study concluded that pure-bred dogs can be correctly identified to their humans significantly more than mixed breed dogs.

Figure 2 shows the results of the study that focused on pure-bred dogs. It shows that strangers (the ‘judges’) were able to identify the correct dog to it’s owner 16 out of 25 times (64%). Also, it showed the judges were able to decide between the dogs and no ties were shown.

Figure 2: Judges results for pure-bred dogs (n=2). Chart created by Chantell Jansz, data from “Do Dogs Resemble Their Owners”

Figure 3 shows the results of the study that focused on mixed-breed dogs. The judges were only able to identify the correct dogs to it’s owner 7 out of 20 times (35%) . Additionally, the judges were more indecisive in their decision as there is a greater proportion of ties for mixed dogs.

Figure 3: Judges results for mixed breed dogs (n=20) Chart created by Chantell Jansz, data from “Do Dogs Resemble Their Owners”

The mechanism as to where the resemblance comes from is still uncertain. However, Dr. Christenfeld suggests,“It’s not people coming to look like their dogs when they live together. Instead it’s that people pick a dog that resembles them … but with a mutt you don’t know what it’s going to look like [when it grows up].”

METHOD

The researchers took pictures of 45 dogs (25 pure-bred, 20 mixed) and their owners from 3 different dog parks. The pictures were taken with care, to ensure the judges could not match the dogs to their owners based on the background of the photos.

The judges (a group of 28 unknowing undergraduates) were shown 3 pictures at a time. The 3 pictures were a dog, the dog’s owner, and another dog from the same park. The judges were asked to pick which dog out of the two, belonged to the owner pictured in front of them. This process was repeated for all 45 dog owners to produce the results (shown above).

Clearly, the results show a trend in the ability of a random individual to identify a dog to it’s owner. However, the study was only done on 45 dogs, limiting the results.

OTHER EVIDENCE OF RESEMBLANCE?

Our furry friends can resemble us more than just physically, found Psychologists at Michigan State University. The paper published in the Journal of Research in Personality in 2019 studied 1681 dogs belonging to 50 breeds, aged between a few months and 15 years.

The study found that dogs’ personalities match their owners. For example, owners high in agreeableness, conscientiousness, and open-mindedness rated their dogs as less fearful, more excitable, and less aggressive. While, owners high in negative emotions rated their dogs as more fearful and excitable, and less responsive to training.

WHAT  DO THESE STUDIES MEAN?

Chances are, if you have a dog it probably resembles you physically if not, emotionally!

 

– Chantell Jansz

 

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These Ingredients in Sunscreen Might Promote Breast Cancer

Posted on February 8, 2020 | Leave a comment

Breast cancer is the most diagnosed cancer with an estimated diagnosis of 331,530 women and 2670 men this year in the US alone. Research by the University of Massachusetts Amherst published on January 15 2020 observed that chemicals in everyday items can increase the chances of breast cancer in women.

Cancer is a dangerous illness, caused by the uncontrolled division of cells in the body. It is predicted that this year 41,760 women and 500 men will die of breast cancer in the US.  These estimations may now have to take into consideration th

Chemical Structure of Benzophenone-3 aka Oxybenzone Source: Wikipedia

e dangers of sunscreen and cosmetics, including makeup, hair products, and moisturizers.These everyday products are known to contain the chemicals benzophenone-3 (BP-3) and propylparaben (PP).

The study indicates that previous research into the effects of BP-3 had shown that only extremely high concentrations could promote cancer growth. Since these concentrations were far beyond the n

Chemical Structure of Propylparaben Source: Wikipedia

ormal levels of exposure to women, there was no cause for concern.

However, the study showed that mice exposed to oils containing BP-3 and PP had an increase in cancer. The results suggest that BP-3 and PP effect cells that contain oestrogen receptors. High levels of oestrogen has previously been linked to an increase in breast cancer.  The exposure to BP-3 and PP at only a fraction of the cancer promoting concentration was shown to increase DNA damage by causing structures known as R-Loops.

Dr Joesph Jerry of UMass Amherst, science director of Pioneer Valley Institute, and co-director of Rays of Hope Centre for Breast Cancer. Source: UMass Amherst from EurekAlert!

Based on the results, Dr Joseph Jerry, the professor of Veterinary & Animal Sciences at the University of Massachusetts Amherst warns that, “There may be a risk at lower levels than we would have previously understood,”.

The study shows that DNA damage only occurs in cells containing oestrogen receptors, and that all other cells show no adverse effects.

It might be time to take a look at the ingredients in your everyday items!

– Chantell Jansz

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These Ingredients in Sunscreen Might Promote Breast Cancer

Posted on January 20, 2020 | Leave a comment

Breast cancer is the most diagnosed cancer with an estimated diagnosis of 331,530 women and 2670 men this year in the US alone. Cancer is a incredibly dangerous illness, caused by the unfiltered division of cells in the body. It is predicted that this year 41,760 women and 500 men will die of breast cancer in the US. Research by the University of Massachusetts Amherst published on January 15 2020 found that benzophenone-3 (BP-3) and propylparaben (PP) can increase the chances of breast cancer.

Because of this, the estimations may now have to take into consideration the dangers of common everyday items that include the chemicals BP-3 and PP. BP-3 is commonly found in sunscreen as it helps to block harmful UV light that may cause damage to the skin. PP is a chemical widely used in the cosmetics industry and can be found in items such as makeup, hair products and moisturisers.

Previous research into the effects of BP-3 had shown that only extremely high concentrations could promote cancer growth. Since these concentrations were far beyond the normal levels of exposure to women, there was no cause for concern. However, this new research shows that cells containing oestrogen receptors, important for regulating gene activity, require only a fraction of the cancer promoting concentration of BP-3 to cause damage to the DNA of the cell. “There may be a risk at lower levels than we would have previously understood,” says professor of Veterinary & animal Sciences at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, science director of Pioneer Valley Institute, and co-director of Rays of Hope Centre for Breast Cancer Research, Dr. Joseph Jerry.

The study shows that DNA damage only occurs in cells containing oestrogen receptors, and that all other cells show no adverse effects.

It might be time to take a look at the ingredients in your everyday items!

 

– Chantell Jansz

 

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