The Printing Press
I chose to research the printing press for my video assignment. I knew very little about the printing press going into this project, so it was an interesting topic for me to learn more about. I found the research interesting, but I struggled to find information on literacy rates following the development of the printing press – I had mistakenly believed that there would be an abundance of information on this topic, but a couple of the books I used for research actually referred to the fact that information around literacy rates of the general public following the development of the printing press were not accurate. All sources I used were found online as I live in a fairly small Northern B.C. town, so our local library did not have the materials I was looking for. I found that there was quite a bit of information online; however, one difficulty I found was that when using the Google books site, I would be able to view many, but not all pages of the books I was using. For example, pages 50-60 might be uploaded, but then pages 61-62 were not available which was unfortunate at one or two points.
As this is my first MET course and I am not especially technologically inclined, I found the video portion of the assignment very difficult. I attempted a couple of different programs, but had various difficulties with each one. I ended up settling on PowerPoint with narration (which I had never done – I actually did not even know that PowerPoint had narration, so this too was new to me) because it was a program I was semi-familiar with. I found it worked well enough, but my finished product seems quite ‘simple’ in comparison to some of the other assignments I have watched. I tried to include slide transitions, but the transitions would cut off my narrative and I could not figure out how to fix it. I also had difficulties with a fluid narration throughout. Despite the fact that I recorded almost all of it at exactly the same time, I feel the sound of my voice changes a bit with each slide. I also had to retape the first slide and there is a click at the end that despite repeated tries, I was unable to get rid of. I also had difficulty uploading as I found out as I tried to upload the PPT to YouTube that PowerPoint is not an allowable program to upload. Luckily, YouTube also has videos on how to convert from a PowerPoint to a video form that is uploadable to YouTube. It took hours (literally) for the PowerPoint to convert to a video file, and then the video ended up taking an incredibly long time to upload to YouTube – the information given to me when I started uploading this morning at around 7:45am was that it would take 500 minutes. I came home on my lunch break to see that there were 230-odd minutes left in uploading and it just now finished uploading at 5pm. I’m not sure if I did something wrong as far as converting the file went, or if I just have the slowest computer in the world.
Next time, I will be sure to ask others/the professor for help on what program is best to use. I tried to handle it myself this time and obviously that was not the best way to do it!
All-in-all, I have learned a lot from this project which is what this course is all about!
YouTube link:
Research paper:
The Printing Press
“A book is only in the first place a physical object, ‘a collection of sheets of paper or other substance, blank, written or printed, fastened together as to form a material whole’ (OED).” (Keep, McLaughlin & Parmar, The electronic labyrinth: The book, 1995).
It is widely believed that the invention of the book coincided with the invention of the printing press. (Clement, 1997). This however is not correct and, in fact, according to Christopher Keep, Tim McLaughlin, and Robin Parmar, the creators of The Electronic Labyrinth, the practice of the printed book dates back before the Diamond Sutra, which was produced in China in 868 CE; the earliest dated printed book. It was not until almost six centuries later that block printing made its way to Europe, and it was some time after that when Johannes Gutenberg invented moveable type in various widths, and combined this new technology with old, including block printing, parchments, inks, and a hand press, to create the printing press which changed the literary world forever (Keep, McLaughlin & Parmar, Johannes Gutenberg and the printed book, 1995).
It is impossible for us to truly imagine, or reconstruct, what life was like prior to the invention of the printing press. In the words of Elizabeth Eisenstein, “Reconstruction requires recourse to printed materials, thereby blurring clear perception of the conditions that prevailed before these materials were available.” (Eisenstein, 1979). As a society, we understand that the printing press changed the quality, quantity and distribution of written texts enormously, and one could say, as Francis Bacon did, that moveable type and the printing press indeed changed “…the appearance and state of the whole world” (Eisenstein, 1979). Today, we are so far removed from the origins of the printed book and Gutenberg’s printing press itself, that we cannot fathom a life standing at a bookstand to read a novel; neither could Gutenberg have imagined an iPad as a reading tool. As Jay David Bolter points out, “Gutenberg might well have been appalled at the thought of someone taking his beautiful folio-sized Bible to bed.” (Bolter, 2001)
Prior to the invention and development of the printing press, written materials were produced by either the Church or the Court, and literacy was a privilege granted to clergy and the upper class. In this way, the Church played an important role in the regulation of information; who was given the privilege of being literate, as well as what was read, was strictly controlled (Keep, McLaughlin & Parmar, Manuscript circulation, 1995). Books were incredibly expensive to make, and as they were created by hand in places like medieval monasteries, the process was extremely time consuming. Monastic scribes would copy manuscripts for hours each day and professional scribes were hired to copy books as the demand grew greater. In reference to both the work of Harold Innis and Plato’s Phaedrus, Neil Postman draws attention to “knowledge monopolies created by important technologies” and the fact that “…those who cultivate competence in the use of a new technology become an elite group that are granted undeserved authority and prestige by those who have no such competence.” (Postman, 1993). As the Church and upper class held the key to literacy, an elite was created and maintained based on the literary technology and controlled competence of the time.
It was during the 15th century that the demand for more books increased, making this a perfect time to introduce new technology to mechanically produce greater numbers of books. Gutenberg’s first attempt was funded by banker, Johannes Fust. Gutenberg used the money loaned by Fust to design a font of type, which we now refer to as B36, with a Paris educated scribe by the name of Peter Schoeffer. This first attempt at a font was deemed too large, but was used to produce a 36-line Bible printed by Gutenberg in 1458. For a second attempt, additional funding was needed, at which point, Fust became Gutenberg’s partner. During this second attempt, Gutenberg and Schoeffer developed a 42-line type, now referred to as B42 type, which was used to produce the 42-line Bible, which we know today as the Gutenberg Bible. The technology of book printing spread rapidly. As the demand for printed books continued to grow, printing workshops were established throughout Europe. By the 1470s, printing presses were being used in most countries in Western Europe, and by the end of the century every major city in Europe had a printing shop of some form (Clement, 1997). One might wonder how scribes fared in the rapid development of the printed book; however, Richard Clement assures us in “Medieval and Renaissance book production”, that the “image of the sudden demise of scribal culture at the hands of the printers is greatly exaggerated” as many former scribes were able to find employment as printers, chanceries and notaries (Clement, 1997).
With the invention of the printing press, the cost of literary knowledge began to decline. As Harold Innis points out, “(t)he monopoly built up by guilds of copyists and others concerned with the making of manuscripts had its effects in high prices which in turn invited attempts to produce at lower costs” (Innis, 1950). Early printers produced more books than could be sold, which caused prices to “plummet” with the result being that a printed book cost about 20% or less than that of its manuscript counterpart (Clement, 1997). CBC Radio’s, “The great library 2.0” draws our attention to the fact that “(b)y the 16th century…printing presses were churning out books at dramatically reduced cost compared to monks copying them out one at a time, and with the drop in publishing costs, demands for new books and new knowledge skyrocketed.” (Kennedy, 2011). By 1470 in Paris, it was estimated that a printed Bible was approximately one-fifth the cost of a manuscript Bible (Innis, 1950). As the printing press was further developed, the number of materials produced drastically increased, while both the time and cost needed to produce the materials significantly decreased.
As with any new technology, the printed book was not well received by everyone. “Ceci tuera cela: this book will destroy that building,” commented the priest in Victor Hugo’s Notre Dame (Bolter, 2001). This quote illustrates the fear held by many in religious authority that the printing press and its related increase in literacy would ultimately undermine the authority held by the church. Human thought could be influenced on a much broader scale and the mode of expression would change dramatically. As Innis highlights in Empire and Communications, “The monopoly of monasticism was further undermined. The authority of the written word declined. ‘The age of cathedrals had passed. The age of the printing press had begun.’” (Innis, 1950). Until this point, the medieval cathedral, with stories held within its stone walls, in statues and stained glass, had been a library for the religious and a symbol of Christian authority (Bolter, 2001). As James O’Donnell reminds us in the Cambridge Forum broadcast, “From Papyrus to Cyberspace” “…there were people who didn’t like printing in the 15th and 16th centuries. And if they said, in the 15th century, that if you allow people to print these books, pretty soon heterodox ideas will be spread across European civilization, it will be harder to maintain theological orthodoxy, it turns out they were right, and at the same time, it turns out that the costs they might have imagined incurring from that loss of orthodoxy turned out in one way or another to be manageable. We did not need quite as desperately as we thought we did perhaps in the 15th century, to live in a world in which everyone shared one body of principles, one body of creed, but they could share in common.” (Engell & O’Donnell, 1999).
What the printing press ultimately did was encourage collaboration and create new opportunities for cultural and educational development; eventually, everyone benefitted from the new technology created by Gutenberg. Students who had previously been reliant on educators to grant them access to scholarly texts were now able to access materials independently. The number of written works available was increasing, as new ideas were also being presented and considered. With these new ideas and concepts, there was, of course, resistance to change; however, despite resistance, printed materials such as reference guides, charts and maps were quickly accepted as they were recognized as beneficial tools by all (Eisenstein, 1979). In addition to a general increase in scholarly and academic-skill related development, printing presses encouraged the collaboration of various professionals who had not previously worked closely together. Eisenstein draws our attention to the fact that “(p)rofessors and printers began to engage in fruitful collaboration almost as soon as the new presses were installed.” In addition to this professional collaboration, astronomers and engravers, physicians and painters were brought together, “dissolving older divisions of intellectual labor and encouraging new ways of coordinating the work of brains, eyes and hands” (Eisenstein, 1979). As the availability of printed books increased and they became more affordable to the general public, the demand for books printed in languages other than Latin increased. Printing establishments began to print books in common languages, rather than limiting written works to scholarly Latin as had been the common practice, which meant socio-economic groups who had never before been given access to written materials were now able to access texts. As Elizabeth Eisenstein points out, “(i)ndeed Latin-reading professional groups profited from new kinds of book learning just as much as did untutored artisans.” (Eisenstein, 1979). This in turn meant that literacy became accessible to more than the religious order and the upper class. Eisenstein states that “Insofar as the vernacular translation movement was aimed at readers who were unlearned in Latin, it was often designed to appeal to pages as well as apprentices; to landed gentry, cavaliers and courtiers as well as to shopkeepers and clerks.” (Eisenstein, 1979). Literacy became an increasingly attainable skill and ultimately was no longer a privilege granted only to an elite group.
Over the course of centuries, literacy has been transformed through the development of numerous technologies, though never more so than with the invention of the printing press. Our understanding of literacy has been shaped by this extraordinary invention, and even as we continue to develop technologies at an ever increasing rate, we cannot underestimate the power of the printing press on literary history and its development of literacy as we know it. In the words of John Culkin, “…we shape our tools and thereafter they shape us” (John Culkin, 1968, as cited by Chandler, 1995).
Literary References:
Bolter, J. D. (2001). Writing space: Computers, hypertext, and the remediation of print. Maywah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Retrieved from: http://www.livemargin.com/socialbook/client/reader.html#bookId=53501759e4b091bb4f80d3db&groupId=55df0140e4b0be3444bb928b&mode=group&chunk=3&offset=1
Chandler, D. (1995). Technological or media determinism: Technology as neutral or non-neutral. Retrieved from: http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/tecdet/tdet08.html
Clement, R. W. (1997). “Medieval and Renaissance book production”. Library Faculty & Staff Publications. Paper 10. Retrieved from: http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/lib_pubs/10
Eisenstein, Elizabeth. (1979). The printing press as an agent of change. Cambridge [England]; New York [USA]: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from: https://books.google.ca/books?id=WUVdAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4#v=onepage&q&f=false
Engell, J. & J. O’Donnell. (1999). “From papyrus to cyberspace” [Radio broadcast]. Cambridge Forum. Retrieved from: https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/pid-2913588-dt-content-rid-12927273_1/courses/CL.UBC.ETEC.540.64A.2015W1.63074/module01/papyrus-cycberspace.mp3
Innis, H. (1950). Empire and communications. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Retrieved from: http://www.gutenberg.ca/ebooks/innis-empire/innis-empire-00-h.html
Keep, C., McLaughlin, T., & Parmar, R. (1995). The electronic labyrinth: Johannes Gutenberg and the printed book. Retrieved 25 October, 2015, from: http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/elab/hfl0228.html
Keep, C., McLaughlin, T., & Parmar, R. (1995). The electronic labyrinth: Manuscript circulation. Retrieved 26 October, 2015, from: http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/elab//hfl0262.html
Keep, C., McLaughlin, T., & Parmar, R. (1995). The electronic labyrinth: The book. Retrieved 25 October, 2015, from: http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/elab/hfl0246.html
Kennedy, P. (2011). “The great library 2.0” [Radio broadcast]. CBC. Retrieved from: http://www.cbc.ca/player/Radio/Ideas/Full+Episodes/ID/1826242021/
Postman, N. (1993). Technopoly: The surrender of culture to technology. New York, NY: Vintage Books. Retrieved from: https://books.google.ca/books?id=gYrIVidSiLIC&printsec=frontcover&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false
Image References:
Examples of movable type, which uses separate components for each letter, number and punctuation mark [Online image]. Retrieved 24 October, 2015, from: http://www.livescience.com/43639-who-invented-the-printing-press.html
[Untitled illustration of Johannes Gutenberg and the printing press]. Retrieved 26 October, 2015, from: http://www.physicsbook.gr/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=241%3Ajohannes-gutenberg-&catid=61%3Aphysics&Itemid=113&lang=en [Untitled illustration of book]. Retrieved 26 October, 2015, from:http://www.medievalists.net/2014/07/04/bigger-book-oversize-medieval-manuscripts/
Scriptorium monk at work (from Lacroix) [Online image]. Retrieved October 30, 2015 from: http://snarkmarket.com/blog/snarkives/books_writing_such/
Image of Eadwine, the Scribe. Cambridge, Trinity College, R. 17. 1; Christ Church Canterbury [Online image]. (c. 1160). Retrieved 31 October, 2015, from: https://medievalfragments.wordpress.com/2013/10/18/writing-the-word-images-of-the-medieval-scribe-at-work/
The Four Evangelists (Plaque): Victoria and Albert Museum [Online image]. (mid-11th century). Retrieved 31 October, 2015, from: https://medievalfragments.wordpress.com/2013/10/18/writing-the-word-images-of-the-medieval-scribe-at-work/
Untitled image of a copyist holding his pen to the light [Online image – courtesy of the Bibliotheque National de France]. Retrieved 25 October, 2015, from: http://www.ultimatehistoryproject.com/the-medieval-scribe.html
A drawing showing how the cloister of Battle Abbey might have appeared in the 13th century, with the north cloister being used as a scriptorium. © English Heritage Photo Library [Online illustration]. Retrieved 26 October, 2015, from: http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/m/medieval-monasteries/
The Gutenberg Bible [Online image]. Retrieved 29 October, 2015, from: http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/permanent/gutenbergbible/
[Untitled image of Gutenberg’s Bible]. Retrieved 29 October, 2015, from: http://www.britannica.com/biography/Johannes-GutenbergFront Cover. Biblia Latina, Mainz: Johann Gutenberg & Johann Fust, PML 12 [Online image]. Retrieved 26 October, 2015, from: http://www.themorgan.org/collections/works/gutenberg/page/1
Genesis, I, 4v–5r. Biblia Latina, Mainz: Johann Gutenberg & Johann Fust, PML 12, I, 4v–5r [Online image]. Retrieved 26 October, 2015, from: http://www.themorgan.org/collections/works/gutenberg/page/1
[Untitled illustration of the operations of an early printing shop]. Retrieved 29 October, 2015, from: https://atlas.lib.uiowa.edu/printing.php [Untitled illustration of a printing workshop]. Retrieved 30 October, 2015, from: http://www.therodina.com/actiontosurface/ [Untitled illustration of printing press with books]. Retrieved 26 October, 2015, from: http://www.physicsbook.gr/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=241:johannes-gutenberg-&catid=61:physics&Itemid=113&lang=enBring on the 15th century! [Online image]. Retrieved 31 October, 2015, from: https://standrewsrarebooks.wordpress.com/2011/11/16/full-cataloguing-of-the-british-portion-of-the-typographical-collection-complete/
A view of a statue and a stained glass window inside of Strasbourg Cathedral [Online image]. Retrieved 31 October, 2015, from: http://www.historylines.net/pages/Europe_2015_7.html
A window depicting the last supper [Online image]. Retrieved 31 October, 2015, from: http://www.historylines.net/pages/Europe_2015_7.html
Great East Window, Gloucester Cathedral [Online image]. Retrieved 23 October, 2015, from: http://www.gloucestercathedral.org.uk/visit/what-to-see-and-do/highlights/cloisters.php
The Caxton Celebration – William Caxton showing specimens of his printing to King Edward IV and his queen [Online image]. Retrieved 29 October, 2015, from: http://www.old-print.com/mas_assets/full/M1150877/M1150877615T.jpg
[Untitled illustration of printing establishment]. Retrieved 31 October, 2015, from: http://www.amaranthpublishing.com/printers.htm
[Untitled image of a scribe]. Retrieved 29 October, 2015, from: http://www.makeuseof.com/tag/project-gutenberg-just-free-books/
I have no idea why some of the image references are in a different font. I went back to edit, but they all look the same on my dashboard, so there wasn’t anything to fix there. Sorry!