{"id":40,"date":"2009-04-13T13:31:08","date_gmt":"2009-04-13T21:31:08","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/blogs.ubc.ca\/geneticsinsport\/?p=40"},"modified":"2009-04-16T13:14:12","modified_gmt":"2009-04-16T21:14:12","slug":"literature-review","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/blogs.ubc.ca\/geneticsinsport\/2009\/04\/13\/literature-review\/","title":{"rendered":"Literature review"},"content":{"rendered":"

The Makings of an Olympian<\/strong><\/h2>\n

Introduction<\/strong><\/p>\n

The dimensions of becoming an Olympic champion are very complex.\u00a0 It involves countless hours of training and exercising, both in and out of the gym, but also requires being motivated, patient, and passionate.\u00a0 While all those traits may contribute to the package, what may truly define the greatness of an elite athlete is their genes.\u00a0 The genetic makeup in an athlete may in part contribute to their athletic success.\u00a0 This notion was all too apparent at the 2008 Beijing Summer Olympics.\u00a0 American swimmer, Michael Phelps, dominated airwaves throughout the entire games because of his record breaking eight gold medals.<\/p>\n

During the games, media outlets analyzed every possible aspect that could have contributed to the 23-year olds success.\u00a0 In doing so, it became clear that Phelps\u2019 advantage over his competitors might have more to do with his genetic makeup than his training regiment.\u00a0 For instance, Phelps was born with hyperflexible joints, allowing his knees, ankles, and wrists to bend about 10 to 15 degrees more than the average person (Parry, 2008, BBC Sports). As a result, he is able to conduct a more powerful flipper kick with both his legs and angles, resembling that of the motion of a dolphin\u2019s tail (Parry, 2008, BBC Sports).<\/p>\n

Further, Phelps has an abnormally long torso with short legs.\u00a0 This in turn allows him to swim faster, as it minimizes his drag and maximizes propulsion (Parry, 2008, BBC Sports). If one were to breakdown every aspect of Phelps\u2019 body, it can be concluded that the composition of Phelps\u2019 body is genetically sound for swimming success.<\/p>\n

Another such example can be identified in the 1964 Winter Olympics.\u00a0 Eero Mantyranta, brought home two gold medals in cross-country skiing for Finland during the games held in Austria.\u00a0 Although, Mantyranta\u2019s training practices were similar to his fellow competitors, his athletic success came in part as the result of his genes.<\/p>\n

Mantyranta was born with a mutation in the erythropoietin (EPO) receptor gene (McCrory, 2003, p.192). This genetic mutation gave him the advantage over the average person, as it \u201cincreased the oxygen carrying capacity of his red blood cells by 25% to 50% to the heart,\u201d which in turn allowed him to maintain his endurance during competition (McCrory, 2003, p.192).<\/p>\n

With genetics having been identified as contributing to human athletic performance, it\u2019s hard to understand how those athletes without the same genetic predispositions can compete.\u00a0 In recent years, scientists have been conducting research into this area, trying to find answers to these questions. Subsequently, this research has lead to the development of gene-based technologies, allowing scientists to examine and manipulate an individual\u2019s genes (Haisma, 2004).<\/p>\n

As a result of these advances, new worries have arisen, as to how these technologies will impact sport.\u00a0 One such worry includes the possibility that athletes will look to enhance their own genes in order to get that athletic advantage. In order to do so, competitors can turn to a medical treatment called gene therapy.\u00a0 According to Dr. H.J. Haisma (2004):<\/p>\n

Gene therapy may be defined as the transfer of genetic material to human cells for the treatment, or prevention of disease or disorders. Genetic materials can be DNA, RNA, or genetically altered cells (p.17).<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

Through the use of gene therapy, athletes are able to use these techniques to enhance their own athletic performance (Haisma, 2004). This in the realm of sports constitutes as gene doping.\u00a0 Since, the effectiveness of genetic therapies have advanced over the past few years, sports doping agencies such as the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) have been scrambling to come up with a test that would catch genetic cheaters.\u00a0 At this point, there are no concrete tests available to catch gene dopers, and as these genetic-based technologies continue to advance, it may become nearly impossible to distinguish between those who are genetically \u2018gifted\u2019 and those who paid for them.<\/p>\n

Given the importance of genetics in sport, the discussion in this paper will examine the key findings in genetic analysis of human athletic performance. In addition, as gene-based technologies continue to evolve, new threats have emerged as to how these advances will impact sport.\u00a0 In this review, genetic medical treatments, gene-doping, and anti-doping tactics will also be addressed.<\/p>\n

Literature Review<\/strong><\/p>\n

David J. Smith provides an in-depth review of the many different components contributing to athletic performance.\u00a0 Smith acknowledges the relationship between genetics and athletics, but maintains that proper training methods, nutrition and rest all play a role in performance (Smith, 2003).\u00a0 Most notable, Smith provides a compelling argument for the importance of training within sports, whereby he links the number of years put into a sport to athletic success (Smith, 2003).<\/p>\n

According to Smith (2003), \u201ca substantial body of evidence suggests that elite performances require around 10 years of practice to acquire the necessary skills and experience to perform at an international level\u201d (p.1107).\u00a0 Although, Smith identifies the role of genetics in athleticism, noting \u201cgenes account for half of performance\u201d, he places emphasis on recovery periods, marking it as a key component to athletic performance (Smith, 2003).<\/p>\n

Furthermore, Smith identifies mental or psychological toughness as key components to athletic performance, and thus, should be incorporated into the training regime of the competitor (Smith, 2003).\u00a0 Taking note of all the psychological traits that influence performance, Smith (2003) identifies the following:<\/p>\n

The psychological factors include motivation, aggression, focus, the aptitude to tolerate pain and sustain effort, attitudes towards winning and losing, the ability to cope with anxiety and stress, coach-ability, the competence to manage distractions and the capacity to relax (p.1108).<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

Therefore, Smith maintains that the manner in which an athlete can cope with the above-mentioned psychological traits may in fact determine their athletic success (Smith, 2003).<\/p>\n

In a review of gene-based technologies, Brad McGregor furthers the analysis of genetics within in sport performance.\u00a0 Within his article, he examines genetic characteristics and their greater impact on training and exercise.\u00a0 Through his examinations, McGregor identifies several genetic components that influence the body\u2019s reaction to training and exercise.\u00a0 Some of these components include oxygen intake, heart rate, and an individual\u2019s cardiac structure (McGregor, 2003).\u00a0 Studies presented as evidence to support McGregor\u2019s argument showed that \u201c30-70 percent of an individual\u2019s cardiac structures and response to cardiopulmonary exercise is genetically pre-determined\u201d (McGregor, 2003, p.9; Patel and Greydanus, 2002).<\/p>\n

Moreover, McGregor goes on to characterize structural traits that are not only influenced by genetics but are integral to performance. He notes that athletic institutions are using gene-based technologies to screen youth for genetic predispositions (McGregor, 2003). They are also using the tests to look for characteristics in the body structure that suit particular sports (McGregor, 2003). These characteristics include:<\/p>\n