Month: June 2024

“ ‘Refined’ (refinado) was the adjective used to refer to someone considered culto, having culture. Diametrically opposed to ignorance, and yet more significant, to coarseness and immorality, having culture implied being erudite, having delicate manners, and behaving according to the principles prescribed by the Catholic religion”

When reading De la Cadena’s text, Indigenous Mestizos: The Politics of Race and Culture in Cuzco, I was surprised how terms of Indigenousness were avoided in the text- rather, De la Cadena explores premises of “culture” and “decency” the colonial state uses to justify discrimination, despite it being very evidently racially based. This tactic is often weaponized by colonial hierarchies, as it makes it more difficult to dismantle structures of subordination that allow them to remain in power. I thought this was very clear in the text that “culture” was being linked to “ethnicity”, but De la Cadena made a claim that made me wonder if it was as evident as I thought it was. 

“These exculpations of racism are embedded in a definition of race rhetorically silenced by the historical subordination of phenotype to culture as a marker of difference. In other words, Peruvians think their discriminatory practices are not racist because they do not connote innate biological differences, but cultural ones” 

This becomes exponentially complicated in the case of hybrid identities as seen in Mestizo community. The concept of “decency” is one of the ways that I saw this exemplified in the text. This weaponization of the Catholic standard of “decent behaviour” results in a systematic cultural assimilation of individuals of hybrid identities- who risk harm if not doing so. Not only are individuals rationing with balancing expectations of differing cultural values, but face prejudice and inhibition in social hierarchies if they reject the imposed colonial expectations designed to sever cultural ties. I’ve been wondering this week if there are residual prejudices in claiming Indigenous identities in Peru that perhaps inhibits people from doing so. 

On a side note, I appreciated that De la Cadena took the time to address how these colonial notions of decency affect women differently than men. Oftentimes the male experience is taken as the default, and neglects the intersectionality of how coloniality affects women differently than men. 

Machu Picchu: One of the seven wonders of the world. A pit stop in our course. 

I’ve learned a lot about Machu Picchu in some of my previous archeology courses. Subjects surrounding the effects of tourism on Peru’s economy or the harms tourism has on it’s preservation were floating around in my mind before our visit. Having these previous notions, combined with what I learned in the Rice readings this week, I was skeptical of the curated experience I would receive when visiting Machu Picchu, or even the potential harm my visitation would contribute. 

I had a more difficult time connecting to Machu Picchu comparatively to some of the other sites we have visited. Sacsayhuamán was surreal. I don’t know if anything can beat that. Not to say Machu Picchu wasn’t impressive in its architecture. I wondered if this was in part due to the fact that Machu Picchu was originally designed for more administrative duties- while Sacsayhuamán was more so spiritually connected to the ceremonies that took place there.

I am, however, hesitant to be so hypercritical of Machu Picchu given the privilege it was to even be able to visit. Although the physical space did not speak to me, the experience of sharing it with so many people made my heart whole. Where I did find a connection in Machu Picchu was being able to share the space with the people there. Hiking up Huayna Picchu was one of the highlights of the experience. There was a certain comradery in pursuing such a difficult climb on such little sleep. Reaching the top. The view. Eating lunch at the peak; everyone tired but content. 

One of the people I talked to on the climb was out guide Ronald (who did insist on multiple occasions that his full name was followed by “the last Inca”). Ronald was not a big talker, but when he spoke, he expressed much love for his work. He taught me how to say “I could stay here forever in Spanish. I understood the sentiment. Perhaps I was quick to write off my experience at Machu Picchu, when it was clear how much being present there everyday meant to another person. Although the physical ruins may have not spoke to me, the breathtaking views were undeniable. I think the presence of nature exists outside of the making of a ruin.

In this week’s reading , Making Machu Picchu by Mark Rice, Rice explores the political, economic, and social impacts that ensued in Peru after the “discovery” (an incorrect implication of lostness) of Machu Picchu by Hiram Bingham in the early 1900’s. Rice analyzes the residual effects that resulted from the promotion of Machu Picchu as a tourist destination- leading to its remaking and reinvention in ways that influenced Indigenous cultures and symbols national identities from Peruvian communities and leaders.

I’ve been sitting with this commodification of Machu Picchu that Rice discusses since coming to Aguas Calientes. The effects of tourism are prominent and more distinctive from some of the other places we have visited thus far in our travels in Peru. From the flashy lights to the Inca warrior statue posted on every street corner- the spectacle reminds me of a lot of places such as Whistler or Niagara Falls.

This commodification and curation of Indigeneity is something that I feel is especially prominent here in Aguas Calientes. Perhaps at first glance I would say that Indigeneity is more visibly expressed here- taking into account the large statues of chiefs, puma symbolisms, and historical myths carved in the sides of walls and mountains. I feel this type of imagery has been the most prominent in Aguas Calientes comparatively to any of the other towns we have visited.

However, after reading Rice’s text, I can’t help but feel so much of it is curated for outsiders exotification and entertainment; selling a concept of Indigeneity in a place that really wasn’t an important location for Indigenous communities to begin with. This type of commodification doesn’t sit quite right with me- colonial powers only promoting Indigenous symbolisms with the intent of molding and modifying this presence to serve a capitalist goal. I felt the Rice reading really emphasized how this national promotion of Indigentiy through the commercialization of their culture actually harms communities as they lose autonomy over cultural heritage.

“What kind of life is this that I can’t separate from this man, if I have hands and feet, a mouth to talk with, and eyes to see? What am I, a cripple? These hands here make all the meals!”

To be completely honest, it was only during my reading of Andean Lives did I stop for a second and think: are there any female authors on our syllabus? Up until this point of the course, I have only heard the perspectives of male authors.

I was honestly a little ashamed of myself for not questioning this earlier on. I think my lack of familiarity with the topics at hand had led me to want to soak up as much information as possible. My critiques thus far had been the lack of Indigenous perspectives. However, my pursuit of context within our studies had shamefully caused me to neglect the intersectionality of these experiences- and life in the Andes is indeed, a gendered one.

Hearing the testimonies of Asunta Quispe Huaman really touched on a lot of realities of the female experience that have yet to be discussed in our coursework so far. Asunta proclaiming her pain of being unable to exist separate from a man not only touched on her limitations of social mobility and economic freedom, but in a sense how her story continues to exist inherently interconnected with the men in her life. I mean, even now, her testimony still only occurs after that of a man’s.

Another thing that I’ve been mulling over is the space that we hold for female perspectives in our recollection of the past. Asunta was given significantly less room for text within Andean Lives, and I guarantee her life deserves no less than the accounts of Gregorio. I wondered if the nature of this text is what allowed for Asunta to share her story at all. The testimony process as a medium allowed a space for Asunta to speak without the academic beautracy that prevents women’s histories, experiences, and realities from being viewed as equally valuable knowledge to that of men’s.

My question for this week is how can we hold more space and focus on female voices in our recollection of the past? Additionally, how can we work towards addressing the intersectional barriers that contribute to these limitations?

Upon congregating in a little circle to learn Quechua songs at Kusi Kawsay, a little boy ran up to take my hand and partake in the song. It appeared he knew this one! And he was excited to share.

The Kusi Kawsay school was tucked away into a little section of the hills above Pisac- the environment, buildings, and gardens all beautifully intertwined with the landscapes. I honestly couldn’t think of a better place for a child to learn. The children were (understandably) apprehensive of the prying tourists exploring their space, but it was evident their love and trust for their teachers in the ways in which they hugged and clung to their teachers in the midst of all the curious excitement.

I have had previous reservations about Waldorf schools; specifically from witnessing misguided implementations of its philosophy in ways that isolate children from ideas from the outside world. Because of Waldorf’s “child led” philosophy, there are limitations of not introducing children to skills that they didn’t have an immediate interest in that may be needed in day to day living. However, I do think at face value, implementing education that encourages creativity and curiosity is better than making children think they are unintelligent when they might not excel at hyper specific skills for niche professions they might potentially pursue.

I think what makes Kusi Kawsayi less “Waldorf adjacent” is its deliberate integration of Andean culture into the curriculum; serving with the intent of deepening connections that children have to their heritage, community, and land rather than isolating connection to the outside. From what I witnessed during my limited time spent at the Kusi Kawsay school, the children were learning pretty standard circulum’s that were adapted in ways that serve to also pass down traditions and embrace Indigenous ways of knowing and understanding the world. Skills like weaving and gardening were taught in ways that did not divide children by gender. The school discussed teaching lessons surrounding sustainability and balance, which was honestly reflected in many aspects of their learning environment. This was really highlighted through the lack of plastic in the schools, and the extensiveness of all the medicinal herbs that were so beautifully growing all over the property.

To me, Kusi reflected an incredibly secure and comfortable environment that really fostered a healthy learning environment for its students. I really admired the embrace of ancient traditions in combination with skills that would provide the students opportunity for jobs in the future.

I think I am curious as to what the curriculum for older students looks like. And what thoughts are on their education. I think students’ perspectives are ultimately really telling of the success of an education system.

“Cobo argues that the Spanish had created the city with great prudence and precision but had not foreseen the growth of the African and Indigenous population. The Spanish would have to share the City of Kings with the people who did the work.” (Aguirre & Walker, 16) 

This quote from a chapter introduction in the Lima Reader is one that has stuck with me throughout the course. The longer that I spend in Peru, the more I begin to piece together how the colonial impact here is different from my understanding of colonialism in North America.

The class discussion surrounding the concept of subalternity is something that has been lingering in my mind. While discovering the depths of Corpus Christi in Cusco, I learned during my readings of Inka Bodies that the Spanish did not strive to erase Indigenous-ness in Peru- contrary, there needed to be some continuing concept or form of identity that would function to separate the Indigenous peoples from the Spanish. Otherwise, there would be a loss of colonial power over people. In the quote pulled from the beginning, this could be applied to the use of Indigenous labour to create Lima, showing that the Spanish had indeed envisioned Indigenous presence, but not privilege or equality within the city. 

“Make them like us, but not too much like us”

I feel like this ties into the quote at the beginning of Cobo’s chapter in the Lima Reader in a way that goes beyond just the creation of Lima. The goal that the Spanish had for the Indigenous Peoples in Peru was not removal as seen in North America, but rather to re-define and limit Indigenous identities to serve the colonial project. Cobo’s quote discusses the “prudence and precision” that the Spanish took into curating this conceptual idea of Lima. However, I would argue that this same precision was given when trying to conceptualize the existing communities’ positions in this colonial idea as well. 

From what I have seen so far in Peru, people and culture surpass policies and expectations imposed upon them. My questions continuing on in this course are about how Indigeneity redefines itself in post olonial contexts. 

In the past week or so, I have now traveled from Cusco to Pisac. To be completely honest, I have been missing the liveliness of Cusco… but being surrounded by the magnificence of the mountains, trees, and landscape has left more quiet time for reflection.

Last week, I visited Sacsayhuamán an additional time after our initial tour. The lady at the booth was kind enough to let Jasmine, Adam and I in for free. This generosity felt special to me. Perhaps she could sense we had all felt a pull to be there. Perhaps it is strange that we charge people to exist in certain spaces. I wondered if the ancestors would not approve of their homes becoming a paid tour. I wondered if they would be okay with our presence regardless. I’ve recently been reflecting on who these spaces are really for. 

I also had a very special experience visiting a planetarium on the top of Sacsayhuamán in which I learned much about how the Inca saw the stars. Coming from the middle of nowhere, I have always been able to see constellations easily. However, now being upside down in Southern Hemisphere, I noticed I could not find the constellations that usually illuminated my sky. After learning about some landmarks in the stars from our guides, I was able to ground myself where I was. Although I was not able to understand the sky in a way that was familiar to me, I was opened up to new stars and constellations that I otherwise would have never seen before. It was weird to think about how the Inca once looked at the same stars as well.

Since Cusco, I have also visited other archeological sites around the Pisac area, such as the Pisac ruins, Tambomachay, and Puka Pukara. Whenever I have spent time at the sites in both the Sacred Valley and Cusco, my heart has felt full being able to connect with people in such sacred spaces. Walking and talking along the same paths that someone once did with their friends hundreds of years ago. An experience that I simply could not take for granted. 

Whilst I’ve been touring these sites, I have really been reflecting on how the Inca would feel about our presence there…I try to imagine what life would have been like for the peoples who used to live in the Inca empire.  I wonder if they sat and marveled at its beauty the same way I do. To have lived in such spaces was so beautiful. To not be there anymore is a tragedy.

I was excited to read a text this week that elaborated more into Inca culture and social structure. I thought that the Garcilaso de la Vega reading provided some historical context that really helped situate me into the contents of other texts that we have read thus far. I especially enjoyed reading the Inca creation story as recorded by la Vega, as I felt that I learned much about the values and beliefs of the Inca from this.

Something that had actually surprised me about this text was how many parallels there were between the Inca creation story and other religious dominations, such as Cathlolism. Mirroring between an all mighty god, a promise land, and two first people put on earth, were characteristics connecting both the Inca and Catholic creations story.

Although there were aspects that I found quite beautiful within the Inca story (such as the journey with the gold wand to find settlement in a land with soft soil) I was surprised to find colonial parallels within the Inca creation story as well. The pursuit of a settlement as instructed by the Inca sun god also entailed leading “savages” to “civilization.” This sentiment in the story made me feel a little uncomfortable. It had never occurred to me that perhaps the Inca partook in colonization under the premise of religion as well. The idea of these people being welcoming of a foreign religion as easily as implied in the Inca story felt very similar to colonial narratives pushed by the Spanish in their pursuit of settlement in Latin America.

I’ve really been sitting with the question brought up in class today. “What advantage did Rome have over Cusco?” In my academic journey thus far, it has come up quite often how academia (and really any other institution) value written history over oral story tellings. I’ve always believed this to be as systematic attempt to control colonial narratives in these realms, and discredit Indigenous ways of knowing. However, I hadn’t considered that the sharing of oral history would also result in my discovery of the Inca empire having also held colonial beliefs.

Having learning this information, I feel there is much more I would like to know about the history of the Inca empire. This is something alongside more history of surrounding Indigneous groups that I would like to explore more. I have now also been reflecting about the idea of different types of colonialism and how these compare and contrast in differing contexts.

The first time that Pizarro and the conquistadors came in contact with the Inca Empire, the Inca ruler, Atahualpa, welcomed the Spanish into the city. Atahualpa did not know the intentions of the Spanish at this time, and ultimately the Inca’s trust and customs were taken advantage of, leading to the execution of Atahualpa and the invasion of the Inca empire. 

The initial pages of Guaman Poma’s The First New Chronicle and Good Government made me feel a little confused at first. I had wondered why an Indigenous nobleman was so persistent in his description of Catholic biblical tales; Especially when his book was addressed to the King of Spain. I found the message Poma was trying to convey in correlation to what I learned about him in the introduction of the reading to be unclear.

My perspective of Poma’s writing changed after learning in class that his work was not actually anti-colonial, but rather a critique on the colonial implementation. It began to click into place perhaps why Poma would draw so many comparisons between the Catholic faith and the Incas belief systems. Upon reading further on in the chapter, I found that Poma was really trying to appeal to the King of Spain on more of a moral ground for the injustices the Indigenous peoples in the Andes were facing.

To be honest, Poma’s work made me a little sad to read. Although the ways in which he describes Indigenous Peoples was problematic and still ultimately pro-colonization (perhaps related to his own personal conflict with his identity) , I think that Poma’s work had the intention of trying to reach some sort of middle ground. That despite the unjust things being done to the Inca’s, if his writing could teach more about Indigenous cultures to a Europeans audience, a commonality could be found. I felt this attempt was especially prevalent in the multiple translations Poma did of his text to make it accessible to a wide array of audiences.

I felt perhaps the heavy emphasis on Catholicism when addressing these injustices to the King was done to show an understanding of the European beliefs in hopes that an understanding would be reciprocated back to the Andes. It made me sad knowing the King of Spain most likely never even read it. The concept of colonization was not a misunderstanding, but an exploitation of people. Watching Poma try to rationalize this was difficult knowing the injustices that would continue to ensue. 

It is week two of my academic explorations in Peru. Having now moved from Lima to Cusco, there was much to adjust to besides the altitude. I had anticipated the move away from Lima to Cusco would provide some space from the city, however- I was surrounded by a different type of bustle here. 

We arrived in Cusco the day before Corpus Christi, yet the festivities had already begun. Staying in Hotel Plaza de Armas provided a view like no other. The center of the festival in the center of the universe. I was surprised by the exuberance of it all. Waking up most mornings to either marching bands or grandiose gunshots that rang within my hotel room. Streets flooded with hundreds of people all trying to catch a glimpse of the saints, marching in. 

We talked a lot in class this week about affect and bodies. I kept this in mind while I watched from the balcony of my room. For multiple days, men passed who swayed and sweat- carrying the weight of the saints through the crowds to the cathedral. Quite literally their weights in gold on their backs. Surely this spectacle had to be symbolic. Perhaps a representation of the Catholic needs for piety to be witnessed. Perhaps a show of penance. I stayed watching the festivities from my window, as I found the noise of it all a little overwhelming. Although through the speakers the bishops announced how Indigenous communities welcomed Corpus Christi to Peru, I couldn’t help but wonder where their voices were amongst all the noise. 

Our trip to Sacsayhuamán provided quieter times of reflection to process this all. I found the physical evidence of the Inca’s architecture to be incredibly moving. Standing on the tallest point of the mountain really made me understand how the Inca’s believed Cusco to be the centre of the universe. Our tour guide explained the manpower it took to create such grand structures- the bricks carved and moved by collective bodies. People working as old as 90 years old. I felt his reflection of bodies to be different from their presence in Cusco during Corpus Christi. The stone structures were a sense of purpose that people were building up for the community. Not weighing people down in symbolic representations of subordination. Something so symbolic that the Spanish put so much effort into destroying it.