Design of Technology – Supported Learning Environments

Anisef, P., Policy Research Center on Children, Y., & Others, A. (1993, January 1). The Young Adult Learner: Fifteen- to Eighteen-Year-Old Students in the Ontario English-Language School System. Volumes One [and] Two. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED373884) Retrieved February 8, 2009, from ERIC database.

Busselle, M. (1998). Better Picture Guide To Landscape Photography. Switzerland, RotoVision.

Busselle, M. (1999). Better Picture Guide To Photographing Colour. Switzerland, RotoVision.

Busselle, M. (1999). Better Picture Guide To Photographing People. Switzerland, RotoVision.

Busselle, M. (2000). Better Picture Guide To Vacation & Holiday Photography. Switzerland, RotoVision.

Explaining Personal and Social Development. (2003). Retrieved February 4, 2009, from PsycEXTRA database.

Focal Point (2001). Basics of Photography. Vancouver, Focal Point.

History of DSLRs. (2009, February) Retrieved February 7, 2009, from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_single-lens_reflex_camera#History

Hmelo-Silver, C. E. & Barrows, H. S. (2006). Goals and strategies of a problem-based learning facilitator. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning, 1. 21-39.

Lefrancois, G. (1997). Psychology for teaching, 9th Ed. (pp.95-100; Vygotsky’s Cultural/Cognitive Theory). Belmont, CA: Wadswork Publishing.

Merrill, M.D. (2002). “A pebble-in-the-pond model for instructional design”. Performance Improvement 41 (7): 39–44. doi:10.1002/pfi.4140410709.  available at http://www.ispi.org/pdf/Merrill.pdf

Merrill, M. (2007, Fall2007). A Task-Centered Instructional Strategy. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 40(1), 5-22. Retrieved February 3, 2009, from MasterFILE Premier database.

Oxford, R. (1997). Constructivism: shape-shifting, substance, and teacher education applications. Peabody journal of education, v. 72 (n1), p35. Retrieved February 3, 2009 from the ERIC database.

Problem-based Learning. (2009, January 27). Retrieved February 4, 2009, from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem-based_learning.

Reigeluth, C.M. (1999). What is instructional-design and how is it changing? In C.M.

Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories and models: A new paradigm of instructional theory, Vol. 2,. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Vianna, E. & Stetsenko, A.(2006). Embracing history through transforming it: contrasting Piagetian versus Vygotskian (Activity) theories of learning and development to expand contructivism within a dialectical view of history. Theory & Psychology. Sage Publications. Vol. 16(1): 81–108.

Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Woolfolk, A. E., Winne, P. H., & Perry, N. E. (2000). Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition. (pp. 42-48; Cognitive Develoment and Language). Scarborough: Allyn and Bacon Canada.

Wyse-Fisher, D., Daugherty, M., Satchwell, R., & Custer, R. (2005, September). PROJECT PROBASE: ENGAGING TECHNOLOGY FOR 11th AND 12th GRADE STUDENTS. Technology Teacher, 65(1), 22-25. Retrieved February 4, 2009, from Academic Search Complete database.

The learning material will be a combination of prefabricated resources such as books and article as well as originally created materials by the instructors. As this course is delivered using the MOODLE CMS platform, materials, instructions, and communications will take place virtually as well as F2F.  Leveraging upon this type of technology affords rapid transmission of course content, directions, and relay of assessment.  Furthermore, communication is enhanced through the use of Web 2.0 and its affordance to social networking. The modules will be formulated using a learning-cycle strategy as follows: exploration, reflection, engagement, and expansion (Wyse-Fisher, 2005).  Moreover, our approach will contain elements of Gagne’s instructional design theory as situations will directly impact methods and the content is conveniently consistent with the flow chart illustrated in “What is Instructional-Design Theory and How Is It Changing?” (Reigeluth, 1999, p. 7).

·         Capturing images in different settings and themes

·         Uploading, organizing, and sharing images

·         Taking notes

·         Creating and updating a weblog

·         Discussion

Interactivities are task-centred in accordance with Merrill (2007) instructional design.  These tasks will achieve the goals and problems prescribed through a consistent process throughout the unit.  Also, planned progressions will address the learning outcomes.

Students will learn how to use a Digital Single Lens Reflex (DSLR) camera, how to upload images to a computer, how to enhance images, and how share and present their work over the internet.  As our learners are grade 11 and 12 students who are 16 to 18 years of age, these learners are supposed to be more mature, independent and critical thinkers.  According to the literature, this target learner learns best through task-based learning and under a student-based environment.  Also, social learning theories are applicable with this age group as collaborative and cooperative learning is essential to achieve learning outcomes (Merrill, 2007).

Our personal view with regards to this group of learners is consistent with the literature inferring that grade 11 and 12 students as mature learners, who are capable of self-direction and able to think critically.  Consequently, the design of our course will take a project or task-based approach that will also focus on problem-based situation.  In addition, as we are leaning towards a discovery approach to scaffolding and constructing knowledge and experience, students will be expected to move through the content and share their ideas and experiences with the class in the social manner whether F2F or virtually through asynchronous and synchronous modes of communication.

Students will be able to discuss the reasons why people take pictures/photographs. According to Focal Point (2001), various reasons can be discussed including:

·         Sociological or anthropological observation

·         Creative outlet

·         Political statement (propaganda)

·         Historical record

·         Personal keepsake

·         Story telling

·         Religious statement

·         Irony or humour

·         Philosophical statement and/or questioning

·         Commercial

·         Experimenting

·         Class position

·         Art statement

Students will be challenged to know some basic terminology within the realm of digital photography such as:

DSLR – stands for Digital Single Lens Reflex.  These cameras can interchange other lenses at anytime.  What you see through these lenses is 95-99% accurate.

Composition which relates to how the photo is set up before taking it.  That is, how one needs to place and/or frame the subject while looking through the viewfinder before snapping the photograph.

Aperture refers to the size of the lens opening that light passes through when taking a photo.  Aperture measurements usually are 1.4, 2.8, 3.5, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32

The larger the number the smaller the aperture size (i.e. f/1.4 will let in the most light and f/32 will let in the least).  F-stop is the unit used to measure aperture.

Shutter speed is how fast the shutter opens and closes and is measured in seconds.

The depth of field in a photograph consists of foreground, mid-ground, and background. A good photo will have all three.

Contrast refers to brightness and colour.  High contrast (bright and intense) colours are bright and intense (e.g. red, orange, yellow, etc.).  Low contrast colours are mellow and calmer (e.g. brown, green, black, grey, etc.).

The golden rule of compositions is the rule of thirds and the use of power points. Imagine the frame being split vertically and horizontally in three equal sections. There are four power points in the frame. Power points are where the perpendicular lines intersect.  The closer the subject is to the power points the more attractive it is.

Mergers are objects that are protruding into the picture or are things that don’t fit.  They should not be there and usually take away from the subject.  However, sometimes hard to avoid – but with computer programs, mergers can be cropped out and/or erased.

Through this design project, students will be able to know how to:

·         To minimize the use of bull eye’s shots

·         Take the time to take the picture – do not be rushed

·         Think about and use the rule of thirds

·         Think about and use power points

·         Think about how to frame/place the subject

·         Think about and use contrast

·         Think about and use depth of field

Among many perspectives behind the perspective of “seeing, thinking, and acting” (Busselle, 1998), the following are some examples of a few significant ones:

Don’t try to include too much in a photograph – this is the most common cause of disappointing results. It is often better to take two or three different pictures of the same object/subject/scene than it is to attempt to record all of the details in one picture (Busselle, 1998).

When deciding the best way to frame the image, it is easier one first identifies an object, tone or colour which can be used as the main focus of attention. Once one has done this, it then becomes more apparent as to how the camera should be angled to position in the frame and how tightly the image should be framed in order to create the most balanced and effective composition (Busselle, 1999).

There is seldom just one best way of composing a photograph and a promising photogenic scene can invariably be framed in a variety of ways. One can learn a great deal about composition by shooting a few variations and the comparing the results; one may discover that the shot s/he thought would be the most successful is sometimes bettered by another (Busselle, 2000).

The design goal intends to address the emergence of technology and it affects on the subject area.  Contemporary digital photography has transformed or redefined the realm of the photographic darkroom into the light and the medium for processing has warranted a paradigm shift.  This shift may be new to the instructor, but some may argue that the learner have never known a world of film or darkroom photography.  The normalcy may offer an advantage to students, in that their computer skills may be an added benefit to the course, but one cannot assume that the students are competent or comfortable with the computer as a learning tool even though they are proficient with using the computer as a communicative tool.  As such, time must be taken to bring a standard level of competency early in the course.

We hope to accomplish a confidence within these students to use their developed and/or refined skill set in taking a picture or creating art with a DSLR.  This design will hopefully provide a broad learning experience from different environments; thus, giving them the mindset of how to shoot in other situations (new or old) they may encounter in the future.  However, the counter-argument would be that the student would lose interest in trying to obtain and/or improve this skill set because of various reasons such as: too challenging, too expensive, too much traveling; too much time needed to be invested; too much energy used in setting up the photographic endeavor; etc. Maybe the counter-argument can be the question of – “Is my pursuit of learning digital photography a hobbyist’s passion or a vocational one?

The primary technology used will include digital single lens reflex cameras, computers, and Internet.

According to Wikipedia (History of DSLRs, 2009), here is a brief history of how the DSLR came to be:

On August 25, 1981 Sony unveiled a prototype of the first still video camera.  This camera was an analog electronic camera that featured interchangeable lenses and a SLR viewfinder.  At Photokina in 1986, Nikon revealed a prototype analog electronic 35 mm SLR camera, the Nikon SVC, a predecessor to the DSLR.

In 1991, Kodak released the first commercially available DSLR.  This 1.3 megapixel camera costed approximately US$30,000. 

Over the next decade, DSLRs have been released by various companies, including Canon, Nikon, Kodak, Pentax, Olympus, Panasonic, Samsung, Minolta, Sony, Fujifilm, and Sigma, with higher resolutions and lower prices.

In 1999, Nikon announced the Nikon D1, the first DSLR to truly compete with, and begin to replace, film cameras in the professional photojournalism and sports photography fields. At that time, this camera was able to use current autofocus Nikon lenses and was also able to utilize the older Nikon and similar lenses designed for those cameras. A combination of price, speed, and image quality was the beginning of the end of 35mm film for these markets.

In 2003, Canon introduced the 6.3 megapixel EOS 300D SLR camera with an MSRP of US$999, directed at the consumer market. Its popularity encouraged other manufacturers to produce affordable DSLR cameras, lowering entry costs and allowing more amateur photographers to purchase DSLRs.

Key Frameworks

This proposal aims to describe, develop, and rationalize our approach to teaching problem-based learning through digital photography.  The content is digital photography and all that it entails, but our hidden curriculum is problem-based learning in addition to other theories such as situated learning, constructivism, scaffolding and task-based learning.  Our learners are grade 11 and 12 learners.  According to the literature, teachers should be more teacher-directed, content-centred in early courses, and highly, student-centred, and process centred in the advanced courses.  As this course is a senior level course, it would fall under the latter category (Merrill, 2007). 

The role of the teacher in term of technology instruction is that of an instruction manager and a creator of teaching and learning environments.

The target population is made up of grade 11 and 12 students. The students are required to work in groups of three to five due to limited resources, cameras and computers.

Different from Jean Piaget’s theory where a learner would be just influenced by society, Lev Vygotsky sought to explain the development of a learner through a collaborative and transformative approach which involved cultural tools, cultural influences, and other individuals (Vianna, 2006). The emphasis on this developmental learning is collaboration, which leads to Vygotsky’s zone of proximal learning (ZPD). Vygotsky viewed ZPD as the space between where the learner currently resided and the learner’s potential for development. Vygotsky’s famous definition of his term “zone of proximal development” states that ZPD is “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers.” (Vygotsky, p. 86, 1978). In other words, ZPD is an area where the learner cannot solve the problem alone but can successfully solve it under the guidance or in collaboration with a more advanced peer (e.g. maybe an adult, an expert in the field, etc.) – this is when actual learning takes place (Woolfolk, 2000).

There is a need and a dependent social aspect consisting of someone with expertise to provide guidance and direction.  Through the assistance of more experienced people, a learner may be able to achieve much more than learning by themselves. The ZPD represents a place where the learner is challenged enough and may be frustrated without the aid of another expertise individual. The idea of scaffolding is related to this type of guidance, where the learner’s knowledge is constructed in a layered manner (almost in stages or in levels), with each level of instruction building upon another layer (Oxford, 1997). The guidance of more competent peers assists in the learner’s experience (Vygotsky, 1978). The key is eventually the learner will be able to do the same-related tasks or understand a concept without the help of the peer or educator. However, educators, parents, and competent peers must take into consideration that the activities in which the learner engages be neither too simple nor too difficult – this will in turn lead to successful growth and development (Lefrancois, 1997).

Therefore, the primary educational activities are framed with the sense of having the student work with other students to start confidently grasping how to shoot with a DSLR.  All the while, an expert in the field of photography is on the sidelines assisting with the scenarios and experimental dissections of learning how to take a photograph with the use of DSLR technology.

Topic:                         Problem-based Learning Through Digital Photography

Learners:                   Grade 11 and 12 Students and in small groups.  According to (Wyse-Fisher et al., 2005), younger students respond better to teacher centred whereas more senior high school teacher are better suited to a student centred.  The teacher is seen as a facilitator who gradually relinquished control or knowledge building to students.  As such the students become active learners who pursue and build knowledge through practice.  Students are viewed a mature learners who are or viewed as critical thinkers capable of effective social interaction resulting in problem solving through discussion (Anisef, P., et al., 1993).  Through critical thinking students are able to solve the problem at hand and determine the appropriate means of achieving the task at hand – in this case capturing images using a digital SLR camera.  Learners are also expected to be able to recognize and identify paths or strategies to solve problems and attain goals through higher order thinking.

Learning space:         Computer Lab, studio, on and off-site field studies

Lessons:                      Modular/Theme based

Through the use of modules and themes, students will develop experience by building and constructing knowledge and skill with the emphasis on various photographic themes and situational conditions.

Platform:                    MOODLE – Open Source Course Management System

We will be using MOODLE CMS that has already been set-up.  The link to our course design is http://johnoliverschool.ca/moodle.

Rationale:                   Digital Photography or photography in general requires independent critical thinking that is developed over time and experience.  This experience is often learnt through trial and error as the setting, subject, or environment as well as lighting conditions are often in constant flux – the photographer must adjust and tap into her/his repertoire to adequately select settings on the camera to capture the image with optimal exposure.  Problem-based learning is the most effective way of teaching photography (North Carolina State, 1988) due to the situational changes.  The theory behind photography is consistent regardless of camera model or equipment utilized, but the photographer must determine the best theory or practice to adequately meet the needs of the subject or theme. By hosting the course and content in MOODLE, the instructor and students can leverage technology to communicate, share ideas, house data, and building knowledge through a learning community.

Theories involved:    Constructivist, situated-learning, scaffolding, task-based, student-centered, and problem-based learning.

Our main focus is Problem-based learning, we know that learning and learning theories do not exist in isolation and we will touch upon other theories in our design.  Our definition of Problem-based Learning is derived from Wikipedia:

According to Wikipedia (Problem-based Learning, 2009),

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered instructional strategy in which students collaboratively solve problems and reflect on their experiences. It was pioneered and used extensively at McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. Characteristics of PBL are:

• Learning is driven by challenging, open-ended problems.
• Students work in small collaborative groups.
• Teachers take on the role as “facilitators” of learning.

Accordingly, students are encouraged to take responsibility for their group and organize and direct the learning process with support from a tutor or instructor. Advocates of PBL claim it can be used to enhance content knowledge and foster the development of communication, problem-solving, and self-directed learning skill.

Problem-based learning (PBL) is typically organized with small groups of learners, accompanied by an instructor, faculty person, or facilitator. During this process, a series of problems are provided to learners with guidance early in the PBL process (with introductory problems), and then later guidance is faded as learners gain expertise (Merrill, 2002). Guidance is faded as group members feel more confident with the subject matter and become more competent with the learned procedures.

Merrill (2007) suggests beginning with worked examples and then later, introduces students to smaller less complex problems. But as the process progresses, Merrill suggests changing problems by adding components to make them more realistic (Merrill, 2002, 2007). Thus it is important to begin with simplified versions of real world problems to progressively add components. This progression and fading motivates learners as they slowly gain expertise and take ownership.

During the PBL process learners should discuss problems, define what they know, generate hypotheses, derive learning goals and organize further work. Results may be subsequently presented to larger groups (under guidance from an instructor). A PBL cycle should conclude with learners reflecting on the learning that has taken place.

From a constructivist perspective Problem-based learning (PBL), the role of the instructor is to guide the learning process rather than provide knowledge (Hmelo-Silver & Barrows, 2006). From this perspective, feedback and reflection on the learning process and group dynamics are essential components of PBL.

Problem-based learning is the theory behind our approach, but we intend to use a task-based instructional strategy to achieve our goal. Our second approach or strategy offered by Merrill (1999), elaborates the first four ripples in this design model: (1) specify a real-world task, (2) identify a progression of tasks, (3) specify component knowledge and skill for each task, and (4) specify an instructional strategy for task-centered instruction. It should be noted that the first three phases in the Pebble model are concerned with the task-centered, first principle and specify the subject matter content to be taught before there is consideration for how this material will be taught. Starting with whole tasks assures that the component knowledge and skill to be taught are relevant and integrated (Problem-based Learning, 2009).

My first encounter with the idea of OLPC was quite recent. Actually, over the past Christmas break – I saw my first commercial (by amazon.com/xo) advertising the project.  Here’s the commercial I’m talking about – maybe you’ve seen it too.I think the commercial is well-filmed in promoting the fact that the XO can offer education in an effective way to students that live in poor conditions; however, are they ready for it?

What is significant, educationally, about this design?

– The design is “a rugged, low-cost, low-power, connected laptop with content and software designed for collaborative, joyful, self-empowered learning. When children have access to this type of tool they get engaged in their own education” (http://www.laptop.org/en/vision/index.shtml).

– My thought is – what does “their own education” really mean?  If the majority of XO laptops are donated or given to children that live in poor conditions – what kind of educational curriculum are they going to be learning from?  Is the student using the XO going to be learning anything about their own culture, people, background?  Or is the content North-American based?

What does this design tell us about the values that matter to its designers?

According to the above quote – it seems to me that they value something that can be a long-term tool for the student.  A tool that can stay with the student as s/he progresses with his/her educational career.

How have the designers taken into account the cultural setting where this educational technology will be used?

“By giving children their very own connected XO laptop, we are giving them a window to the outside world, access to vast amounts of information, a way to connect with each other, and a springboard into their future. And we’re also helping these countries develop an essential resource—educated, empowered children.” (http://www.laptop.org/en/vision/mission/index.shtml)

By reading this quote – it seems like the concept of culture is ignored because XO aims to help connect the student to the outside world (which is good in its own right) but as mentioned above – how about one’s own culture setting?

What critical questions might educators ask about this design and/or this initiative?

– Does the country/area/community ready have the technological backing/support (e.g. Internet connectivity, on-site support, etc.) to bring this tool in?

– Do other priorities come first before the XO (e.g. housing, food, water, etc.) is introduced or brought in?

Thanks,

Jason

Happy New Year everyone!