Final Paper Excerpt: GEOG 412
Water and Sanitation: Is the Private Sector the Optimum Provider?
Social Efficiency and Impacts on the Poor
While in calculable terms there is evidence of improved efficiency following private sector involvement, we also must consider efficiency in relation to social conditions. Susan Spronk (2010) defines “social efficiency” as what is “judged by the impact that a given act, event, or institution has on public welfare more broadly” (p. 161). According to this theory, it is relevant to assess service performance on the basis of its social impact, like the number of jobs it creates, the affordability of the service, and the means through which the providing enterprise is protecting water resources. In the context of a debate surrounding which parties are more appropriate for the management of water service provisioning, where a large focus lies on the ability to provide to low-income areas, this type of measurement becomes particularly relevant. If a central point of the existing debate is economic efficiency, then it follows to provide equal weight to arguments concerning alternative efficiency measures.
As discussed, privatization has its roots in the unequal prioritization of service provisioning, and that lack of equal access still largely characterizes the water and sewerage sector today. Some suggest that privatization favors the non-poor and is primarily profit motivated, characteristics which make it an inappropriate policy when considering equity and social justice (Mulreany et al. 2006; Prasad, 2006).
Despite the claims to the importance of expanding service to low-income and unpiped areas, where clean, safe drinking water and sanitation are needed the most, companies have developed a collection of tactics to keep themselves from accountability for expanding into areas presenting financial risk. Foreign capital is increasingly interested in large markets that present little risk (Prasad, 2006). The practice of selectively accepting contracts to service middle and high income countries is known as “cherry picking”. Companies prioritize these contracts as they know there is greater potential to collect fees and produce profits for shareholders (Prasad, 2006), and investing in developing economies presents many uncertainties. As Sara Grusky (2001) writes, “there is little evidence of the multinational water companies’ commitment to expanding service, especially poor communities where the ability to pay increased fees is limited” (p.17). Due to this selectivity, privatization does not always enable countries short of funds to build new water systems ( Seppälä et al., 2001 ). In fact, the ability to selectively service only the wealthy works to increase global inequality in access, working directly against the claim that privatization expands services to those living in water insecurity.
Literature Review: ASTU 100A
Media, Sports, and National Identity
Stuart Hall states that ideologies carry an important function by constructing positions of identification for the members of a society, be they individual or collective. These ideologies help to shape a unified body of thought within a community, through which ideas and personal positions relative to the surrounding world may be formed (82). Scholars Andrew C. Billings and Simon Ličen, whose study centers around media’s role in forming a new national identity in Slovenia following its 1991 declaration of independence, argue that discourse in sports coverage, specifically that of the Olympics, constructs a tailored worldview and aids in the creation of personal identities related to nationalist ideas. Younghan Cho agrees, adding that sporting nationalism- the nationalist sentiment or ideology promoted by sporting events- is “an artificial and intentional outcome” of slanted media coverage. (349) In essence, mass media aims not only to report, but to report in such a way that “speaks through” (Hall 82) a society’s prominent ideologies, and fashions a specific response from the audience.
Hall tells us that media is one of the “dominant means of ideological production”, forming for it’s receivers certain images, descriptions, explanations, and frames of reference with which to interpret the surrounding world. (82) These images and descriptions are perpetuated through discourse, which Billings et al. define as “a set of meanings and statements that produce a particular version of events” and argue that media discourse, as in television’s selectivity over narration and description of events, may alter a viewer’s perceptions of reality. Citing Hall, they go on to say that “individuals construct their own identities from the options provided through discourse” (381). A viewer may chose to align themselves with what is being shown, or to object to it, but very few form personal positions outside of what is presented. In this way mass media holds the power to form a sense of identification with what is shown and to shape the viewers thoughts. Strategic advertising is one such example of media’s influence, wherein it is relayed to the consumer that in order to live up to the common image of perfection or success they would need to purchase a certain product.
In the case of the Olympics, media tends to present an exaggerated sense of comradeship, which Cho argues is pivotal for defining a sense of national boundaries. As he observed in South Korean Olympic coverage across three iterations of the event, it is often done by adopting an “us” versus “them” mentality, and emphasizing international rivalries (349). Billings et al. identify the same use of terms “us” and “them” in Slovenian sports casting, as well as the overtly positive portrayal of ‘home’ athletes as “golden boys” or “heroes” (382). They also found that during the 2008 Olympics, Slovenian athletes were given the greatest prominence in their home country’s coverage of the event, netting an 8% of on-air dialogue while comprising a mere 0.9% of athletes partaking in heavily televised competitions (gymnastics, swimming, and track and field) (386). The disproportionate amount of airtime portrays to viewers that these participants carry more prominence than they actually do. Through this specific word choice and granted screen time a sense of identification with representative athletes is formed, and those pertaining to the same nation gain a sense of belonging and unity with one another; what Cho, through Anderson, refers to as an “imagined community” (349). By presenting the country as a unified entity competing on a global scale, mass media was able to aid in creating a new sense of national identity for Slovenian individuals. But this is not an isolated phenomena; anyone who has taken part in rooting for sports teams could attest to the comradery felt with their fellow fans.
Citing Hogan, Cho argues that the Olympics exemplify a struggle and set of tensions between localism and globalism. Then, drawing on Bairner, he tells us that the identification with nationalist players as well as nationalist interests in international sports casting may reflect a resistance toward global forces (350). I propose that in times of globalization and increased interconnectedness people look to nationalist symbols and expressions in order to retain a sense unity with their fellow denizens and belonging within their homelands. While globalization has many benefits, the idea of such vast interconnectedness may leave some feeling marginalized and wondering what their role in the bigger picture is. The use patriotic sentiments to unite the people of a state allows individuals to feel grounded within their societies and secure in their national identities, which in turn presents an image of internal strength and solidarity to a global audience.
Works Cited
Billings, Andrew C., and Simon Ličen. “Cheering for ‘Our’ Champs by Watching ‘Sexy’ Female Throwers: Representation of Nationality and Gender in Slovenian 2008 Summer Olympic Television Coverage.” European Journal of Communication 28.4 (2013): 379-96. Communication and Mass Media Complete. Web. 1 Nov. 2016.
Cho, Younghan. “Unfolding Sporting Nationalism in South Korean Media Representations of the 1968, 1984 and 2000 Olympics.” Media, Culture & Society31.3 (2009): 347-64. Web.
Hall, Stuart. “Ch. 10. The Whites of Their Eyes: Racist Ideologies and the Media.”Gender, Race, and Class in Media: A Critical Reader. Ed. Gail Dines and Jean M. Humez. N.p.: SAGE Publications, C2011. 81-84. Print.