St. Thomas More (16th C.)
St. Thomas More was an eminent Roman Catholic English Bishop who, in 1516 wrote one of the most important books ever published: Utopia. In the book, a traveller meets with several men and proceeds to opine and then to tell them of his peregrinations in foreign lands. He begins with a discourse on why the death penalty ought to be abandoned, suggesting that the only reason that most people are driven to crime is that they have no other choice. He continues that it would be immoral to punish someone for a crime which you forced him to commit.
After a brief intermission, the man continues by discussing the distant and seemingly perfect land Utopia. Utopia is a completely egalitarian society in which everyone works as much as possible and then freely takes of the abundance of the communal labour. Included in the system are universal equality, democratic elections, freedom from avarice and greed, a universal medical system, and universal care for those with disabilities. The wanderer notes that the Utopians are
extremely fond of people who are mentally deficient and, though it’s considered very bad form toinsult them, it’s quite in order to find their silly behaviour amusing. In fact, it’s thought better for them that you should, for, if you haven’t enough sense of humour to see anything funny about the things they say and do, you’re obviously not the right person to look after them.
…But if you start laughing at anyone who’s ugly or deformed everyone will start laughing at you. You’ll have made an awful fool of yourself by implying that people are to blame for things they can’t help -for, although one is thought very lazy if one doesn’t try to preserve one’s natural beauty, the Utopians strongly disapprove of make-up. (More, 1965; 105).
The word “deficient” is footnoted by translator Paul Turner (1965), and it is commented that the term could also be translated as fool, but that he chose this other term because More is clearly referring to those who are of sub-normal intelligence and therefore require some sort of support. It should also be mentioned that Utopia was the clear inspiration for later socialists, and it bears notable resemblances to The Communist Manifesto.
Paradigm Placement – Pity, kindness, charity.
It is clear from the passage above that the blessed St. Thomas More considered that those with severe mental impairment need to be well treated and supported. While the language may be somewhat antiquated, the sentiment is what is key here. The Saint is exhorting his readers to care for those with disabilities, rather than merely considering them outcasts. Indeed, the above segment of text even makes apparent that he knew that not all people were well suited to helping those with cognitive deficiencies.
Furthermore, he continues his discourse by demonstrating that those with physical deformities ought not to be ridiculed because they can hardly help how they appear. As a result, it is clear that this prominent bishop in the high medieval period was actively engaged in advocation for those who were suffering from mental and physical disabilities.
St. Thomas More. (1965). Utopia (Paul Turner, Trans.). Great Britain, UK: Penguin Classics.
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Frankenstein (1816)
“Endless rain and creative imaginations on an 1816 vacation of friends Shelley, Byron, Clairmont and Polidori precipitated the modern horror story.” (Friedman & al., 2014; 447). This was where a young Mary Shelley composed and wrote her famous book Frankenstein. The book -which only superficially resembles its various later media reincarnations- tells the story of an energetic and devoted scientist named Victor Frankenstein. As a young man, Frankenstein is educated in a university where he excels in the sciences. He then dedicates himself to prolonging and even creating life. After years of fevered work he manages to create The Monster, which is never given any other monocer.
The result of his scientific experiment was a Creature from alien body parts, a hideous eight-foot-tall Monster, whom he rejected because of its grotesque appearance. In seeing his Monster, Victor [Frankenstein] asked himself in horror, “What have I created?” (Carter, 1999: 1200).
Horrified by what the has done, Frankenstein rejects the beast and must be nursed back to health by friends and family. Guilt-ridden and slowly descending into madness Frankenstein grapples with the horror of his creation. By the completion of the book, he is completely insane (if he was not already at the time when he actually created the monster).
The impact of this work has been immense. Carter (1999) describes the book as “the most famous horror story of all time, is a major literary achievement” (1200). It is well beyond the pale of this study (and indeed of this author) to discuss the full range of influence exerted by Shelley’s work on other literature and cinema, however, a very brief overview of a few of the major pieces of popular media which were spawned directly from Frankenstein. There have been numerous film adaptations of the classic horror film as attested by the wikipedia page which lists dozens of films which revolve around the monster. Notably, not all of them are horror films, Mel Brooks’ Young Frankenstein is a comedy, and in his newspaper cartoon The Far Side, Gary Larson makes abundant use of the monster. As a result, Frankenstein is not only relevant as an early nineteenth century piece of media, but also as a contemporary one, whose popularity and influence have spanned almost two centuries.
Paradigm Placement – Dangerousness, evil.
As noted above (Friedman & al., 2014; Carter, 1999), Shelley’s work was essential to the formation of the entire genre of horror and its influence has been realised well beyond the realm of that genre. Shelley, perhaps unwittingly, created a paradigm for later terror-based literature and film: that of the madman or mad scientist who unleashes great evil upon the world. In this way, mental illness, in this case insanity or obsessive behaviour, is associated with dangerousness and evil. The derangement of Dr. Frankenstein drives him to create the monster, which in turn is a hideous creation abhorred by all and forces him further into his madness.
Mary Shelley envisioned that maniacal pursuit of knowledge, fame, and power may not only destroy the emotional state of the scientist but also result in disastrous societal consequences (Carter, 1999: 1200).
The tale of the obsessive and increasingly disconnected individual who unleashes evil upon the world is a common motif. Shelley clearly employs images of insanity and mental instability to create horror. Much as Edgar Allan Poe would do several decades later, Shelley induces fear through examples of melancholia mixed with mania.
As a result, it is clear that the representation of disabled people in this work is highly negative. Those suffering from depression or melancholia are othered and considered dangerous.
Carter, Richard. (1999). Mary Shelley’s Nightmare (1797-1851): Frankenstein; Her Life, Literary Legacy, And Last Illness. Surgical History. 23(11). 1195-1201.
Friedman, Susan H., Forcen, Fernando E., Shand, John P. (2014). Horror Films And Psychiatry. Australasian Psychiatry. 22(5). 447-449.
Shelley, Mary, W.. (1977) Frankenstein. Intro. by Robert Dowse & D. J. Palmer. (Everyman’s Library: New York).
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A Christmas Carol (1843)
The popular Dickensian story A Christmas Carol tells the story of a miserly old man, Ebenezer Scrooge, who runs a successful business in nineteenth century London. Working for Scrooge is Bob Cratchit, who has a crippled son named Tiny Tim who desperately requires medication and treatment which the pauper and his family cannot afford.
On Christmas Eve Scrooge is visited by four ghosts: that of his deceased and draconian business partner, Jacob Marley, a premonition of things to follow, and the the Ghosts of Christmas Past, Present, and Future. Each ghost reveals to Scrooge visions which strike fear into the old man and make him realise the error of his way. The next morning he is a new man, generous and caring, and easily affords the medication which Tiny Tim needs to stay alive.
This story has gained renown and recognition all over the world for its excellence and beauty. It has been made into numerous films, which span a number of genres, and has been referenced in dozens of popular culture settings. For a century and a half Dickens’ work has remained popular and an intrinsic part of Western popular consciousness.
Paradigm Placement – Victimhood.
The depiction of the only important disabled person in this story is one of victimhood. While Dickens paints an accurate image of the hopelessness of those with too many dependants in industrial London, this necessarily involves depicting those with physical disabilities as victims of the cruel vicissitudes around them. The very survival of Tiny Tim is dependant upon Scrooge’s munificence. What the old miser decides to do with his money will determine whether or not the boy lives, and both he and his family have little say in the matter.
Dickens, Charles. (2010). A Christmas Carol. USA: Prestwick House Inc.
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The Tell-Tale Heart (1843)
The Tell-Tale Heart, has been one of the most popular and long lasting of Edgar Allan Poe’s works. The story tells of a young servant boy who is driven mad by the look of his master’s eyes. The story gives a window into his murderous lunacy, and then follows the painstakingly slow entrance of the servant into his master’s bedroom one night and then the killing of the master. Having committed this heinous act, the man dismembers the corpse and hides it under the floorboards.
In an attempt to feign his own innocence, he calls the police who unsuspectingly join him for a cup of tea. As they enjoy the tea, the narrator believes that he can hear the beating of his erstwhile master’s heart beneath the floor. The policemen cannot hear this fictitious beating and are surprised when the killer, who had up until this point appeared calm, suddenly shrieks his confession: “Villains!”…”dissemble no more! I admit the deed! –tear up the planks! here, here! –It is the beating of his hideous heart!” (Poe, 1956;199).
The popularity of this story is clearly evidenced by its prevalence online (as any internet search will demonstrate) as well as by the fact that The Simpsons featured an episode which paralleled the story. The Alan Parsons Project, a popular progressive rock band from the 1970s also composed a song entitled The Tell Tale Heart, on an album dedicated to the works of Edgar Allan Poe.
Paradigm Placement – Negative, evil, horror, dangerousness.
This image of mental ill health is very clear: those with mental illnesses are considered to be dangerous, murderous, violent, and paranoid. The narrator begins in a state of madness as evidenced by the fact that he cannot bear the sight of his master’s eyes. This aversion to the look of his employer causes him to take horrific action against the innocent old man. Furthermore, his mental illness magnifies his guilt and causes him to hallucinate, imagining that the heart beneath the floorboards is still beating. This hallucination in turn makes it impossible for him to contain his madness and he is driven to admit his guilt.
It is easily imaginable that if this were the only -or one of the only- experience that an audience member had had with mental illness, that this would make mental ill health the object of the horror that the story induces. As an early piece of the horror genre The Tell-Tale Heart fits perfectly with the habit of horror authors of employing mental disability to create fear. This is a technique which has been used continually for the past two centuries (Friedman & al., 2014).
Parsons, Alan; Woolfson, Eric. (1975). The Tell-tale Heart. On Tales Of Mystery And Imagination. Los Angeles :20th Century.
Poe, Edgar A. (1956). Selected Writings Of Edgar Allan Poe. (Edward H. Davidson, Ed.). Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Scully, Mike. Kirkland, Mark. (Sept. 11th, 1994). Lisa’s Rival. In Mirkin, D. The Simpsons. United States: Fox News.
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The Raven (1845)
The Raven is a very popular poem written by Edgar Allan Poe which chronicles the descent of a widower into madness. While sitting in his study one dark night, the man imagines he hears tapping and rapping, but cannot find the source. Eventually, throwing open the shutter, he gives entrance to a raven which lands above the door. Driven to great distress, the man believes that he can hear the raven saying the term nevermore, as though to mock his longing for his deceased wife. By the end of the poem the man is in a maniacal state while
…the Raven, never flitting, still is sitting, still is sitting
On the pallid bust of Pallas just above my chamber door;
And his eyes have all the seeming of a demon’s that is dreaming
And the lamp-light o’er him streaming throws his shadow on the floor.
And my soul from out that shadow that lies floating on the floor
Shall be lifted-nevermore! (Poe, 1956: 39).
The poem was designed to tell a spooky and frightening story, and has enthralled audiences for the past two centuries by doing just that. Its popularity is witnessed most notably by the fact that The Simpsons included the entire poem in the first Halloween special that the series ever did (narrated by James Earl Jones), and, in 1975, the popular band The Alan Parsons Project wrote a single about the poem on an album which also featured the songs A Dream Within A Dream and The Tell-Tale Heart dedicated to Poe.
Paradigm Placement – Negative, frightening.
This poem and the pieces of popular culture to which it gave rise is important to the representation of disability in the media because it depicts insanity or schizophrenia as the object of fear. It is needless to say that no one wants to hallucinate, but the use of madness as the object of horror in so lugubrious a fashion clearly associates otherness and fear with the illness. It can be easily imagined that the fear of such an object of horror could easily prompt individuals not to report their own potential illnesses. This is an earlier example of how mental illness is used in modern Western media as a catalyst for trepidation. At the end of the poem, the reader is left feeling sorry for, but also afraid of, the narrator and it is therefore a decidedly negative and othering portrayal of mental illness.
Parsons, Alan; Woolfson, Eric. (1975). The Raven. On Tales Of Mystery And Imagination. Los Angeles :20th Century.
Poe, Edgar A. (1956). Selected Writings Of Edgar Allan Poe. (Edward H. Davidson, Ed.). Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Swartzwelder, John; Kogen, Jay; Wolodarsky, Wallace; Simon, Sam; Poe, Edgar Allan. (Writers). Archer, Wes; Moore, Richard; Silverman, David. (Directors). (Oct. 25th, 1990). Treehouse Of Horror. Groening, Matt; Brooks, James L.; Simon, Sam. (Producers). The Simpsons. United States. Fox Broadcasting.
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Psycho (1960)
Psycho (Hitchcock, 1970) was a film, released in 1970 which has had a pronounced effect on popular culture. The film tells the story of the owner of the nefarious Bates Motel, Norman Bates, who turns out to by a psychotic killer, meting out his neuroses on unsuspecting guests. The viewer witnesses this deranged lunatic speaking with his mother over and over again until, in the final scene the audience is permitted to see her and it is immediately apparent that she has been dead for many, many years. Among the most famous scenes is a shower murder scene in which Bates murders a guest.
References to the movie appear in satire as ranging as The Simpsons and the newspaper cartoon The Far Side (which features a number of strips relating to the film). Moreover, there have been many sequel films and spin-off television programs including a prequel show called Bates Motel, which explains Norman Bates’s childhood traumas and remains popular today.
Paradigm Placement – Evil, dangerousness.
The portrayal of mental illness in the Psycho films is anything but complimentary. Those with mental illness are considered to be dangerous and violent, and worthy to be feared. There is a clear association with mental disorders and violence: Norman Bates talks to his long erstwhile mother and commits heinous acts. It is clear that he is hallucinating and that this is at least part of what drives his violence.
One can easily imagine how a spectator who had little or no knowledge of mental illness would be negatively influenced by this film. The stereotype of the evil, deranged, and murderous lunatic obsessed with a dead relative is a strong image of revulsion in Western literature and cinema, and is perpetrated by the Psycho franchise at the expense of the social well being of those who suffer with mental disorders.
Hitchcock, Alfred (Producer), Hitchcock, Alfred (Director), (1960) Psycho. [Motion Picture]. United States: Paramount Pictures.
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Dune (1965; 1984; 2000)
In 1965, Frank Herbert published the first in what would become a series of popular science fiction books, entitled Dune. The book, set in a fantastical future told the story of a duke’s son, named Paul Atreides, whose father is given control of a small desert planet called Arrakis (or Dune) on which giant sand worms produce a product known as the spice. The spice is used by a monopolistic Spacing Guild which controls all interstellar transport. Meanwhile, the duke’s nemesis, the evil Baron Vladimir Harkonnen, in colludes with the emperor, springs a trap killing the duke, and sending Paul and his mother fleeing into the deserts of this remote and strange land.
Paradigm Placement – Negative, evil, dangerous.
What is important for our purposes is that the evil Baron Vladimir Harkonnen is summarily ugly and crippled. Grossly overweight he required a set of futuristic suspenders to help him maneuver. His ugliness and obesity is clearly indicative of his sloth, malevolence, duplicitousness, and general cantankerousness. Herbert (1990) describes him in the following way:
As he [the Baron] emerged from the shadows, his figure took dimension – grossly and immenselyfat. And with subtle bulges beneath folds of his dark robes to reveal that all his fat was sustained partly by portable suspensors harnessed to his flesh. He might weigh two hundred Standard kilos in actuality, but his feet would carry no more than fifty of them. “I am hungry,” the Baron rumble, and rubbed his protruding lips with a beringed hand. (Herbert, 1990; 21).
The importance of his physique to the evil of the Baron was not lost on the producers of both cinematic features. In both features he is pictured very much as Herbert described him. In this way, it is clear that, like the bards who told the Arthurian Romances, Herbert espoused disability with evil and dangerousness.
Galin, Mitchell; Rubenstein, Richard P., (Producers). Harrison, John (Director). (2000). Dune [Mini Series]. United States: Sci-Fi Channel.
Herbert, Frank. (1990). Dune. USA: Ace Books.
Laurentiis, Raffaella De, (Producer), Lynch, David (Director), (1984). Dune. [Motion Picture]. United States: Universal Pictures.
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Star Trek (TNG) (1989-1992)
“[N]o television series has consistently portrayed individuals with disabilities as major characters as [has] Star Trek.” (Shepherd, 2007: 2-3). The brainchild of Gene Roddenberry, the show was first aired in the late 1960s and early 1970s. It tells the story of a starship, the USS Enterprise, on a voyage of exploration. The original ship’s bridge officers include a wide range of people from various minority or otherwise marginalised groups including a female and African American communications officer Lt. Uhura, chief engineer ‘Scotty’, and both a Russian and Japanese officer (both the traditional enemies of the United States: the show’s primary audience). The program did include some discussion of disability and inclusion -indeed it has been renowned for its progressivism- however, it was not until the subsequent series, Star Trek The Next Generation (Star Trek TNG) that a disabled person would hold an important officerial role on the ship.
This character is one Geordi La Forge (who, incidentally, is also African American), the blind chief engineer and one of the primary eight protagonists. Geordi is able to ‘see’ using something called a VISOR (Visual Input Sensory Optical Reflector), which looks like a metal band which sits across his face obscuring his eyes. In several episodes, this ‘disability’ is discussed in detail. In one such episode Geordi is stranded with some of the crew’s enemies, an alien species ycleped the Romulans. The Romulans cannot understand why Geordi was allowed to survive on earth and, to the disgust of the viewer, suggest that this must explain why the human “race is weak. You waste time and resources on defective children” (Shepherd, 2007: 5; from Kemper, Pillar, & Carson, 1989).
However, the most notable instance of discussion of disability occurs in an episode entitled The Masterpiece Society (1992). In this episode, the crew of the Enterprise is attempting to save a group of colonists on a now unsafe planet. However, they soon discover that the inhabitants have a policy of killing all infants born with any disability. It is after this realisation that the following conversation takes place between Geordi La Forge and one of the colonists, Hannah.
La Forge: So…guess if I had been conceived on your world I wouldn’t be here now, would I?
Hannah: No.
La Forge: No. I’d have been terminated as a fertilized cell.
Hannah: It was the wish of our founders that no one have to suffer a life with disabilities.
La Forge: Who gave them the right to decide whether or not I should be here? Whether or not I might have something to contribute?
(Shepherd, 2007: 5; from, Belanoff, Pillar, & Kolbe, 1992).
These two episodes hotly support the rights of all people with disabilities to life. The authors, and presumably the audience as well, found it offensive that a child might be terminated simply because he did not live up to the physical or mental expectations of society.
Paradigm Placement – Agency, ability, positive.
It is clear from the above stated that the creators and patrons of Star Trek made and make a conscious effort to portray those with disabilities in a positive light. Geordi La Forge exercises agency over his own life, and holds a very high rank aboard the top ship in the Star Federation’s fleet. He is considered to be the cream of the crop and, in several other episodes, his ability only to see what the VISOR shows him becomes of great benefit to the rest of the crew, who are limited to their normal human vision.
Therefore, Star Trek TNG displays one of the most progressive and positive images of disabled persons. It does not shy away from the discrimination often faced by such people, but it also demonstrates that, with the proper support -in this case the VISOR-, someone with a disability can overcome obstacles and even rise to a role of great import.
Belanoff, A., Pillar, M. (Writers), & Kolbe, W. (1992). The masterpiece society [Television series episode]. In M. Piller & R. Berman (Executive Producers), Star trek: The next generation. California: Paramount Pictures.
Kemper, D., Pillar, M. (Writers), & Carson, D. (1989). The enemy [Television series episode]. In Roddenberry (Producer), Star trek: The next generation. California: Paramount Pictures.
Shepherd, Terry. (2007) Infinite Diversity In Infinite Combinations: Portraits Of Individuals With Disabilities In Star Trek. TEACHING Exceptional Children Plus. 3(6). Retrieved Jan. 20th, 2016. http://escholarship.bc.edu/education/tecplus/vol3/iss6/art1.
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Forrest Gump (1994)
Forrest Gump is a film which tells the story of a man who suffers from both mental and physical disabilities, and how he finds his way in the world. Raised in the southern United States, Gump is befriended by a neighbour girl Ginny who comes from a very abusive family. As Forrest ages, he develops a need for leg braces, which he eventually inexplicably sheds while running. As Ginny and Gump age, Ginny runs into trouble and ends up joining various political movements and attaching herself to abusive boyfriends. Gump, meanwhile has his own adventures which include running across the country, fighting in Vietnam, operating a shrimp company, and occasionally bumping into Ginny.
Eventually, the two end up forming a relationship -Gump’s lifelong dream- but, shortly after consummating the relationship, Ginny departs. Several years later she contacts Gump and he discovers that he has a son. The three form a family on Gump’s old farm, but soon thereafter Ginny dies as a result of her wild lifestyle as a youth, and Gump is left with his son. The movie is charming and witty, but is also tragic, and leaves the viewer with a bitter-sweet feeling.
Paradigm Placement – Agency.
Forrest Gump presents a very positive image of persons living with disabilities. Early in the film Gump overcomes his physical limitations and goes on to become a celebrated runner. However, it requires the remainder of the film for him to learn to live successfully with his mental impairments.
Throughout the film, Gump demonstrates that people with disabilities have much to offer the world. Gump manages to contribute in many ways, fighting for his country, inadvertently creating t-shirt emblems, and touching many hearts. His innocence and charm coupled with the support of several characters and some good luck combine to make this possible. As Yang (2014) observes, Gump’s “characters of being frank, pure and optimistic have close relation with his own conditions and the influences of his mother and Jenny” (228). By the end of the film, Gump, now a father and successful businessman, has found his place in the world. He has exercised his agency, contributed much to the world, and has a son.
However, it should be noted that the film was not wholly uncriticised. Elaine Greenbaum (1996), while pleased to see a more positive representation of disability in the popular media, also expressed her distress at the fact that most persons living with mental disabilities do not have the opportunities afforded Gump. She argues that it presents the world of disabilities through rose-coloured glasses, and ignores the usually dead-end lives that people with lower than average intelligences lead. In short, she views the agency depicted in the film as being misleading.
This criticism may have some value to it, but, as Yang (2014) -and anyone who has watched the film- observes, Gump faces considerable discrimination, and yet he is nonetheless able to overcome this adversity, exercise his agency, and be a valuable and valued member of society. As a result, it is clear that Forrest Gump is one of the most positive representations of disability in modern media.
Finerman, Wendy, Starkey, Steve, Tisch, Steve (Producers), Zemeckis, Robert (Director), (1994) Forrest Gump. [Motion Picture]. United States: Paramount Pictures.
Greenbaum, Elaine. (1996) Forrest Gump And His Box Of Chocolates. Mental Retardation. 34(2). pg 128.
Yang, Rui. (2014). The Influences of Forrest Gump’s Characters on His Language Characteristics in Film Forrest Gump. Canadian Social Science. 10(5). 221-228.
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