Canada: National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls

Context and Summary

Between 1980 and 2012, 16% of all women who were murdered and 11% of missing women in Canada were Indigenous despite only making up 4% of Canada’s female population [1]. In 2005, the Sisters in Spirit (SIS) initiative was created by the Native Women’s Association of Canada to gather statistics and raise awareness about the violence Indigenous women were facing and a report they conducted in 2010 concluded that 528 Indigenous women and girls were either missing or murdered [2]. In 2014, the RCMP conducted a report called the “Missing and Murdered Aboriginal Women: A National Operational Overview” that recorded 1,017 homicide cases between 1980-2012 and 164 missing investigations that dated back 1952 [3]. The findings of the report led to a public outcry for a national inquiry into the issue that was now being called a genocide. Finally, in September 2016, the Government of Canada launched a National Inquiry into the Missing Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls (MMIWG) under the federal Inquiries Act [4]. Provinces and Territories have also established the Inquiry under their Order-in-Council, therefore, authorizing the Inquiry to look at federal, provincial and territorial jurisdictions [5]. The Inquiries Act gives the commissioners of the inquiry powers to call any witnesses, require witnesses to give evidence, and require the production of any document or item that they need relevant to their investigation [6]. Although authorization for the Inquiry came from the government, it was conducted independently. The Inquiry published its final report on June 3, 2019 and the Inquiry concluded on June 30, 2019 [7].

[1] “Background on the inquiry.” Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada, 22 April 2016, https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1449240606362/1534528865114.

[2] Ibid.

[3] “MMIWG.” Assembly of First Nations, https://www.afn.ca/policy-sectors/mmiwg-end-violence/.

[4] “About the independent inquiry.” Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada, 3 June 2019, https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1470140972428/1534526770441.

[5] Ibid.

[6] Ibid.

[7] “Timeline of Key Milestones.” National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/timeline/.

Key Issues

The Inquiry was tasked with looking into and reporting on the systemic causes of all forms of violence against Indigenous women and girls [1]. The inquiry examined “the underlying social, economic, cultural, institutional, and historical causes that contribute to the ongoing violence and particular vulnerabilities of Indigenous women and girls in Canada”[2]. They also looked into the existing institutional policies and practices of the governments to address the violence Indigenous women and girls faced. The inquiry was not limited to just the murder and abduction of Indigenous women and girls, rather it addresses issues “such as sexual assault, child abuse, domestic violence, bullying and harassment, suicide, and self-harm” [3]. The Inquiry acknowledged that “colonial structures such as the Indian Act, the Sixties Scoop, residential schools and breaches of human and Indigenous rights” resulted in the race-based genocide of Indigenous peoples [4]. The Inquiry’s mission was to find the truth by gathering stories from individuals. In doing so, these stories will give an insight “into what violence really looks like for Indigenous women and girls in Canada” [5]. By gathering these stories, the Inquiry builds a foundation that allows Indigenous women and girls to reclaim their power and place [6].

[1] “Our Mandate, Our Vision, Our Mission.” National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/mandate/.

[2] Ibid.

[3] Ibid.

[4] “The National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls.” CPAC, 4 June 2019, https://www.cpac.ca/en/cpac-in-focus/mmiwg/.

[5] Our Mandate,” National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls.

[6] Ibid.

Key actors: Domestic

The National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous women

The National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls began in September 2016 and consisted of thousands of interviews with families and survivors [1]. The goal was to end the disproportionate violence against Indigenous women and girls and identify what underlying causes were creating this vulnerability [2]. It combined research, elders and knowledge keeper testimonials, analysis of police files, and family stories [3]. The final report consisted of 231 calls to action directed at not only the federal government but all Canadians [4].

The Native Women's Association of Canada

The Native Women’s Association of Canada works to advance the interests of Indigenous women and girls and their families using activism, policy analysis, and advocacy [5]. Their Initiative called Sisters in Spirit conducted in-depth research into the disappearance of 582 Indigenous women and girls from 2005-2010 and was a strong advocate for a national inquiry to occur [6].

National Family Advisory Circle
The National Family Advisory Circle consisted of volunteers who were available to give advice to the National Inquiry and help guide their work [7]. They work alongside the inquiry to ensure families providing testimony are heard and that evidence is provided with the proper witnesses. They are invited to participate based on their leadership and advocacy history, their interest in the inquiry, and their representation of diversity and communities all over Canada [8].

LEAF: Legal Strategy Coalition on Violence Against Indigenous Women (LSC)

The Legal Strategy Coalition on Violence Against Indigenous Women (LSC) was founded in 2014 after Loretta Sauders, an Inuit student was murdered in order to create a network of resources for addressing violence against indigenous women [9]. They engage in advocacy and research regarding all of the Indigenous women who have been murdered or are missing and have been vocal about their support for the public inquiry [10]. They have created many works that call upon the government to stop the discrimination and violence Indigenous women endure [11].

The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada

The Truth and Reconciliation Commission was founded as a part of the Indian Residential School Settlement Agreement [12]. The TRC’s mandate was to educate Canadians about the experiences of Indigenous people in the schools and to gather truths from survivors and families that have been affected by their aftermath [13]. The commission had a 5-year mandate which came to an end in 2015 [14]. They released a document with their calls to action which included creating a national inquiry into missing and murdered indigenous women [15].

[1] “Final Report.” National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls , 29 May 2019, www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/final-report/.

[2] Ibid.

[3] Ibid.

[4] Ibid.

[5] “Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls: Stakeholders.” KAIROS Canada, www.kairoscanada.org/missing-murdered-indigenous-women-girls/stakeholders.

[6] Ibid.

[7] Bell, Brett. “Meet NFAC.” National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, 5 Mar. 2018, www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/meet-nfac/.

[8] Ibid.

[9] “Legal Strategy Coalition on Violence Against Indigenous Women (LSC).” LEAF, 20 Nov. 2020, www.leaf.ca/project/legal-strategy-coalition-on-violence-against-indigenous-women-lsc/.

[10] Ibid.

[11] Ibid.

[12] “About Us.” Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, www.trc.ca/about-us/faqs.html.

[13] Ibid.

[14] Ibid.

[15] Canada, Truth and Reconciliation Commission. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada: Calls to Action, Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, 2015, pp. 1–20.

Key actors: International

Human Rights Watch
Human Rights Watch (HRW) stated in January 2014, that “The Canadian government should set up an independent national inquiry into the violence experienced by indigenous women and girls and create a system for greater accountability for police misconduct” [1]. Furthermore, in a report published in 2013, HRW not only highlighted the failure of law enforcement by the police, but also pointed out that indigenous women and girls have been victims of outright police abuse [2].

United Nations
The UN Human Rights Office has urged the Canadian government not only to “to probe the national inquiry's conclusion that violence against Indigenous women and girls amounts to genocide” [3], but also urged the government to take action; "An inquiry is important, but now I think it's the time for implementation." [4].

Amnesty International
Amnesty International stated multiple times that it “is alarmed at the government of Canada’s failure to act on a recommendation by the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls” [5].

[1] "Canada: Violence Against Indigenous Women." Human Rights Watch, 31 January, 2014, https://www.hrw.org/news/2014/01/31/canada-violence-against-indigenous-women.

[2] "Those Who Take Us Away: Abusive Policing and Failures in Protection of Indigenous Women and Girls in Northern British Columbia, Canada." Human Rights Watch, 13 February, 2013, https://www.hrw.org/report/2013/02/13/those-who-take-us-away/abusive-policing-and-failures-protection-indigenous-women.

[3] Stevanovich, Olivia. "UN Human Rights Office calls for examination of MMIWG inquiry's genocide claim | CBC News." CBC News, 16 June, 2019, https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/stefanovich-un-national-inquiry-genocide-response-1.5174855.

[4] Stevanovich, Olivia. "'It's time for implementation': UN High Commissioner urges Ottawa to develop national MMIWG action plan | CBC News." CBC News, 17 June, 2019, https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/stefanovich-un-high-commissioner-visit-mmiwg-plan-1.5179005.

[5] "Amnesty International alarmed at Canada’s failure to act on MMIWG Inquiry police task force." Amnesty International, 5 June, 2018, https://www.amnesty.ca/news/amnesty-international-alarmed-canada’s-failure-act-mmiwg-inquiry-police-task-force.

Barriers to Truth and Reconciliation

Bystander Phenomenon

In order for the Inquiry to make a lasting difference, the final report has listed a number of calls to action. These include the need for Canadian citizens to not only become allies but begin doing the work to fight racism and break down barriers [1]. This implicates Canadians to actively become a part of the change by supporting the Indigenous community and using their own voices to deter others from continuing the systemic oppression of not only Indigenous women and girls but Indigenous people as a whole. By asking an entire population to do so, there will be push back from those who choose to discriminate against marginalized communities and hesitation from those who are unsure what is going to happen if they reach out [2]. This creates what is referred to as the bystander phenomenon where people become passive supporters when in fact the only way to make change is by being an active supporter [3].

Racially Motivated Policing

Prior to the National Inquiry on MMIWG, Canadian law enforcement failed to deal with the issue of missing and murdered Indigenous women allowing them to continue to be abused without proper proceedings to follow up [4]. In northern BC in particular the RCMP continued to allow women to go missing along the Highway of Tears without any real intervention into why this was happening [5]. Human Rights Watch also documented RCMP violations of Indigenous women in 10 towns in British Columbia. Indigenous women and girls are subjects of misconduct including being beaten by officers who had been called to their aid, injured because of excessive use of force, and even raped and sexually assaulted by RCMP officers [6].

Rushed Meetings with Families and Survivors

With over 800 families being interviewed during the inquiry some families complained that their meetings were being rushed through and they were not given adequate time to prepare [7]. For some, they were given only a week’s notice and were then made to feel as though they had to fight to get their stories heard [8]. As stories are rushed through, families do not get to express their thoughts freely and openly but instead, have to compete with the notion that the government just wanted to get in with the inquiry [9]. This sacrifices the need to take the utmost care in such a delicate situation for the want to get it done as soon as possible.

The marginalization of Indigenous Women

The context surrounding the inquiry has to do with both multigenerational and intergenerational trauma from the history of colonization. This has led to poverty, homelessness and lack of access to essential services like education, health care, and employment [10]. The colonial and patriarchal policies put in place upon colonization also displaced women from what were considered their traditional roles in Indigenous communities [11]. Women experienced a loss of identity and status leaving them disproportionately vulnerable to violence [12].

[1] Bernhardt, Darren. “MMIWG Report Calls on Canadians to Act: Here's How to Make an Impact | CBC News.” CBC News, 8 June 2019, www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/mmiwg-racism-final-report-actions-1.5163245.

[2] Ibid.

[3] Ibid.

[4] “Those Who Take Us Away.” Human Rights Watch, 26 June 2015, www.hrw.org/report/2013/02/13/those-who-take-us-away/abusive-policing-and-failures-protection-indigenous-women.

[5] Ibid.

[6] Ibid.

[7] The Canadian Press. “Feminism Missing from Consultations on Murdered Women's Inquiry, Advocates Say | CBC News.” CBC News, 18 Jan. 2016, www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/missingwomen-carolyn-bennett-inquiry-feminism-1.3407921.

[8] Ibid.

[9] Ibid.

[10] Final Report.” National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, 29 May 2019, www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/final-report/.

[11] Ibid.

[12] Ibid.

Analysis of Successes

The official website of the Government of Canada, last modified in June 2019, outlined the following actions since the launch of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls on September 1, 2016: On the one hand, the Canadian government aimed to ensure that voices of Indigenous women are heard. On February 1, 2019, the Canada-Native Women’s Association of Canada Accord was signed [1], which is one of three initiatives taken to achieve that. On the other hand, the government of Canada has promised to review the criminal justice system, which lead to the strengthening of the sexual assault laws in the Criminal Code in December 2018 [2]. Furthermore, ten employees within the RCMP’s National Office of Investigative Standards and Practices are now specifically linked to MMIWG investigations [3], and more shelters and transition houses were promised to be established; “as of June 2019, the Government of Canada has invested over $200 million across government to prevent gender-based violence, support survivors and their families''[4]. The Canadian government also set out to create a National Action Plan, which aims to be developed in cooperation with indigenous governments and organizations and the federal, provincial and territorial governments, according to the website of the Canadian government last modified in October 2020.

As it seems, the Canadian government has been committed to taking action against the ongoing violence against indigenous women in a variety of aspects, as outlined above. However, multiple news articles published in 2020 suggest differently. The Sisters in Spirit Day, which is held every year on October 4th to honor missing and murdered Indigenous women, was marked with new calls for justice in 2020 [5]. Due to the current COVID-19 pandemic, the National Action Plan that the government promised to establish by June 2020, has been delayed. According to a CBC article by Stefanovich, the Native Women’s Association of Canada (NWAC) ”gave Canada a failing grade in four evaluated areas: culture, health, security and the right to justice” [6]. The organization requested to be part of the decision-making tables according to Stefanovich, which suggests that the promise of the Canadian government to include voices of Indigenous women has been unsuccessful. Former commissioners of the inquiry also publicly criticized the inaction of the Canadian government and “called on Canada to appoint an impartial international organization to oversee the implementation of their recommendations” [7]. Furthermore, an article in the Global News states that family members of victims question “the government’s ability to tackle the MMIWG inquiry’s 231 recommendations when it has yet to complete the 94 calls to action from the Truth and Reconciliation Commission nearly five years ago.” [8], and, as of 2019, only nine of these 94 recommendations had been completed, according to Gerster. The global COVID-19 pandemic has further increased the urgency of a National Action Plan. While Indigenous women and girls had been at higher risk for domestic violence before the pandemic, this has now gotten worse. An article in the National Post also highlights that shelters in Canada are “not run for or by Indigenous people” [9], which is why some indigenous women might refrain from accessing shelters. While the Canadian government promised to increase spending on shelters across the country, the question arises whether the establishment of new shelters specifically for Indigenous women would be more effective, based on this statement.

According to these sources, the reconciliation process seems to have been rather unsuccessful. On the one hand, as these articles suggest, family members of victims have been disappointed and have reported an inaction by the Canadian government. This inaction, as well as the delay of the National Action Plan have received harsh criticism nationwide. On the other hand, the numbers of missing and murdered Indigenous women and girls suggest that the reconciliation process has been unsuccessful within preventing violence: According to a CBC article, there have been 130 cases of murdered Indigenous women between 2016 and 2019, therefore an average of three deaths each month [10]. Considering that the National Inquiry into Murdered and Missing Indigenous Women and Girls began its mandate in 2016, this data suggest rather little success.

[1]“Actions Taken by the Government of Canada since the launch of the inquiry.” Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada, https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1559566331686/1559566355192.

[2] Ibid.

[3] Ibid.

[4] Ibid.

[5] Bensadoun, Emerald. “Demands for justice renewed as Canada marks MMIWG day of awareness | Global News.” Global News, 4 October, 2020, https://globalnews.ca/news/7377435/mmiwg-day-of-awareness-canada/.

[6] Stevanovich, Olivia, “Indigenous women's organization gives Ottawa failing grade on its MMIWG response | CBC News.” CBC News, 8 June, 2020, https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/stefanovich-nwac-mmiwg-inquiry-one-year-anniversary-1.5596172.

[7] Ibid.

[8] Gerster, Jane. “Canada is asking families of murdered, missing Indigenous women to wait for action plan. Why? | Global News.” Global News, June 3, 2020, https://globalnews.ca/news/7015803/mmiwg-action-plan/.

[9] Wright, Teresa. “Violence against Indigenous women during COVID-19 sparks calls for MMIWG plan | National Post.” National Post, 10 May, 2020, https://nationalpost.com/pmn/news-pmn/canada-news-pmn/violence-against-indigenous-women-during-covid-19-sparks-calls-for-mmiwg-plan.

[10] Barrera, Jorge. “MMIWG cases continued at same rate even after national inquiry began, data shows | CBC News.” CBC News, 5 June, 2019, https://www.cbc.ca/news/indigenous/mmiwg-inquiry-new-cases-statistics-databases-1.5162482.

Primary Texts and Documents

“About the independent inquiry.” Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada, 3 June 2019, https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1470140972428/1534526770441.

“Actions Taken by the Government of Canada since the launch of the inquiry.” Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada, https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1559566331686/1559566355192.

Amnesty International. Amnesty International, 2004, pp. 1–37, Stolen Sisters: A Human Rights Response to Discrimination and Violence against Indigenous Women in Canada, https://www.amnesty.ca/sites/amnesty/files/amr200032004enstolensisters.pdf.

“Background on the inquiry.” Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada, 22 April 2016, https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1449240606362/1534528865114.

Canada, Truth and Reconciliation Commission. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada: Calls to Action, Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, 2015, pp. 1–20.

“Final Report.” National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, 3 June 2019, https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/final-report/

“Full Moon Memory Walk Keeps MMIWG in the Spotlight.” TBNewsWatch.com, www.tbnewswatch.com/local-news/full-moon-memory-walk-keeps-mmwig-in-the-spotlight-1693943.

“How the Robert Pickton Case Sparked Changes to B.C. Missing Persons Investigations | CBC News.” CBC News, 3 Feb. 2018, www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/bruce-mcarthur-robert-pickton-missing-persons-1.4517472.

Glowaki, Laura. “At the Heart of Indigenous Day Live, a Knowledge Keeper Stokes the Sacred Fire | CBC News.” CBC News, 23 June 2018, www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/indigenous-day-live-winnipeg-1.4719700.

“Missing and Murdered Aboriginal Women: A National Operational Overview.” Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 27 May 2014, https://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/en/missing-and-murdered-aboriginal-women-national-operational-overview

“Prime Minister of Canada and the President of Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami announce the Inuit-Crown Partnership Committee.” Justin Trudeau, Prime Minister of Canada, 9 February 2017, https://pm.gc.ca/en/news/news-releases/2017/02/09/prime-minister-canada-and-president-inuit-tapiriit-kanatami-announce

“Prime Minister welcomes final report from the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls.” Justin Trudeau, Prime Minister of Canada, 3 June 2019, https://pm.gc.ca/en/news/statements/2019/06/03/prime-minister-welcomes-final-report-national-inquiry-missing-and

Stevanovich, Olivia. "'It's time for implementation': UN High Commissioner urges Ottawa to develop national MMIWG action plan | CBC News." CBC News, 17 June, 2019, https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/stefanovich-un-high-commissioner-visit-mmiwg-plan-1.5179005.

Stefanovich, Olivia. “Ottawa delays release of national action plan on missing and murdered Indigenous women.” CBC News, 26 May 2020, https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/stefanovich-mmiwg-action-plan-delay-1.5583585

Stevanovich, Olivia. "UN Human Rights Office calls for examination of MMIWG inquiry's genocide claim | CBC News." CBC News, 16 June, 2019, https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/stefanovich-un-national-inquiry-genocide-response-1.5174855.

“The National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls.” CPAC, 4 June 2019, https://www.cpac.ca/en/cpac-in-focus/mmiwg/.

"Those Who Take Us Away: Abusive Policing and Failures in Protection of Indigenous Women and Girls in Northern British Columbia, Canada." Human Rights Watch, 13 February, 2013, https://www.hrw.org/report/2013/02/13/those-who-take-us-away/abusive-policing-and-failures-protection-indigenous-women.

“Towards a National Action Plan.” Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada, https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1590950479157/1590950564663.

“What we are doing.” Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada, https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1591125706865/1591125725240.

Annotated Bibliography

Bailey, Jane, and Sara Shayan. "Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women Crisis: Technological Dimensions." Canadian Journal of Women and the Law, vol. 28, no. 2, 2016, pp. 321-341.

Jane Bailey and Sara Shayan’s article explores the role technology has on missing and murdered Indigenous women by looking at how technology interacts with the complex history and sociocultural environment. The authors conclude that technology is interlocked to colonialism, misogyny and racism, all of which are the root causes of the genocide against Indigenous women in Canada. Some forms of violence that involves the use of technology are stalking and intimate partner violence, human trafficking (particularly aboriginal women in prostitution), pornography and child abuse imagery and bullying and harassment. The inclusion of the use of technology goes beyond examining the role of structures, institutions and policies, all of which perpetuate the continuation of violence against Indigenous women and girls. In doing so, the article contributes a different perspective of the types of violence Indigenous women and girls experience.

Hansen, John G., and Dim, Emeka E. "Canada's Missing and Murdered Indigenous People and the Imperative for a More Inclusive Perspective". The International Indigenous Policy Journal , vol. 10, no. 1, 2019, https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/iipj/vol10/iss1/2 DOI: 10.18584/iipj.2019.10.1.2.

Hansen and Dim argue in their paper that Indigenous men should be included into the inquiry of Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, as a focus on Indigenous women could limit the opportunity for communities to work together. More specifically, they highlight the fact that Indigenous men were seven times more likely to be victims of homicides compared to non-Indigenous men in 2015, but, at the same time, little attention is given to violence committed against Indigenous men in Canada. The paper offers a different perspective to the MMIWG, and provides the reader with an overview of the MMIWG inquiry as well as the criminal justice system.

Lucchesi, Annita H. "Mapping Geographies of Canadian Colonial Occupation: Pathway Analysis of Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls." Gender, Place and Culture : A Journal of Feminist Geography, vol. 26, no. 6, 2019, pp. 868-887.

Annita Lucchesi’s article uses the lives and experiences of Indigenous women to argue that the life course studies, particularly the pathway analysis is useful to the cases of the missing and murdered indigenous women because it helps analyze the geographies of violence that Indigenous women face. By using a pathways analysis, Lucchesi is able to deconstruct the five primary binaries of discourse regarding missing and murdered Indigenous women.

These five binaries consist of:

1) society’s assumption that these women were drug addicts

2) Indigenous sex workers were not seen as victims because they “chose” that career

3) living off a reserve and in an urban city was safer

4) the tension between personal choice versus state violence (these women all had agency but were all victims of institutional violence)

5) challenges idea that society is marginally better than it was 50 years ago.

The deconstruction of these five binaries illustrates not only the individual choices made by Indigenous women but also the role structural and institutional violence play in regard to Indigenous women and girls’ safety and constructing public assumptions/opinions.

Morton, Katherine. "Hitchhiking and Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women: A Critical Discourse Analysis of Billboards on the Highway of Tears." Canadian Journal of Sociology, vol. 41, no. 3, 2016, pp. 299-326.

Katherine Morton’s article identifies how public perceptions of hitchhiking supports the idea that “missing and murdered Indigenous women and girls [were] willing, available and blame-worthy victims” in their abductions. Many Indigenous women who have hitchhiked along Highway 16 in Northwestern British Columbia, dubbed Highway of Tears, have gone missing. Morton states that to discourage the use of hitchhiking, all three levels of government have put up billboards indicating the dangers of hitchhiking. What the government’s fail to consider is the socioeconomic reasons why Indigenous women hitchhike in the first place. These reasons being that areas along Highway 16 are underdeveloped and women living in these areas often do not have the funds for a car, therefore, resulting to hitchhiking. Morton’s study found that the victim blaming was evident in the discourse around hitchhiking. Individuals believed that women who chose to hitchhike are partially to blame for any violence they encountered, thus stigmatizing hitchhiking. The article’s focus on the Highway of tears addresses the ongoing violence Indigenous women face due to government policies and (in)action and public opinion.

Dangoisse, Pascale, and Perdomo, Gabriela. “Gender Equality through a Neoliberal Lens: A Discourse Analysis of Justin Trudeau’s Official Speeches.” Women's Studies in Communication, 2020, pp. 1-29.

Justin Trudeau, the current Canadian prime minister, was the first male head of government that openly stated to be a feminist in 2015. Trudeau has taken multiple actions following these feminist ideas, such as appointing women to cabinet positions as well as promising to create a national inquiry of the MMIWG. Based on that, Dangoisse and Perdomo examine how Trudeau's self-proclaimed feminism shows in his official communications, and find that Trudeau’s speeches rarely included references to feminism. Furthermore, they suggest that Trudeau regards women as 'untapped economic resources'. Therefore, as they conclude, the study shows the limits of the relationship between feminism and neoliberalism. Dangoisse and Perdomo argue that neoliberalism as the dominant political discourse hinders to recognize women’s full worth.
This paper not only explores intersectional feminism, which is relevant to the reconciliation process of MMIWG, but also situates Trudeau’s role as a prime minister within this process.

Palmater, Pamela. “Shining Light on the Dark Places: Addressing Police Racism and Sexualized Violence against Indigenous Women and Girls in the National Inquiry.” Canadian Journal of Women and the Law, vol. 28, no. 2, 2016, pp. 253–284.

Palmater examines the role of the police force within violence experienced by Indigenous women and girls. More specifically, she not only highlights the inaction of the police force to address these crimes, but also highlights that acts of violence have been committed by the police itself, using specific examples from Ontario and Quebec as well as from the RCMP. Therefore, she urges for an investigation of the Canadian police force and points out that this is crucial within moving towards true reconciliation. With that, she offers a unique contribution to the MMIWG reconciliation process, and highlights the complexity and urgency of the situation.

Trudeau, Lyn. “Pig Girl: An Indigenous Woman’s Perspective Through “Scriptive Things”.” Brock Education: A Journal of Educational Research and Practice, Vol. 28, no. 1, 2018, pp. 49-62.

Trudeau examines the controversial theatrical play 'Pig Girl', which is based on the murders committed by serial killer Robert Pickton. While it was aimed to raise awareness about the missing and murdered Indigenous women and girls, it received extensive criticism, as it was perceived as a dehumanization of Indigenous women. Trudeau analyses the play and aims to shed light on the impact of the representation of Indigenous women by various media platforms. Furthermore, she highlights the need of working collaboratively with Indigenous women rather than silencing their voices, which is an important aspect of the reconciliation process.

Saramo, Samira. "Unsettling Spaces: Grassroots Responses to Canada's Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women during the Harper Government Years." Comparative American Studies, vol. 14, no. 3-4, 2016, pp. 204-220.

Samira Saramo’s article discusses the use of Indigenous activism and grassroots collectives to counteract the federal government’s silence and inaction, particularly within the Harper years, that have allowed for the continued violence Indigenous women and girls experience. Harper viewed missing and murders of Indigenous women and girls as individual acts of crime rather than a sociological phenomenon. Projects such as the Idle No more movement and outcry for a national inquiry illustrated the complacency of the Harper government in the continuation of colonization. The inaction by the Harper government is the reason why an Inquiry into the genocide was not created until 2015. Indigenous women and girls waited 35 long years for Canada to address the ongoing violence they continue to face.

Bibliography/Works Cited

“About the independent inquiry.” Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada, 3 June 2019, https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1470140972428/1534526770441.

“About Us.” Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, www.trc.ca/about-us/faqs.html.

"Amnesty International alarmed at Canada’s failure to act on MMIWG Inquiry police task force." Amnesty International, 5 June, 2018, https://www.amnesty.ca/news/amnesty-international-alarmed-canada’s-failure-act-mmiwg-inquiry-police-task-force.

“Background on the inquiry.” Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada, 22 April 2016, https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1449240606362/1534528865114.

“Bags Full of Tears: How the MMIWG Inquiry Is Honouring, Healing Trauma | CBC News.” CBC News, 19 Oct. 2017, www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/mmiwg-national-inquiry-health-supports-1.4362818.

Bailey, Jane, and Sara Shayan. "Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women Crisis: Technological Dimensions." Canadian Journal of Women and the Law, vol. 28, no. 2, 2016, pp. 321-341.

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