Humanitarian Access:

Over the seven year conflict, the domestic population of Syria has experienced vast amounts of trauma, violence, and displacement. Over half of the overall population has been displaced from their homes, as human rights violations are continuously committed by the al-Assad government. The need for humanitarian access for the displaced reached a head as reports began to reveal that the Syrian government elected to use chemical weapons on their own people. The epicenter of this humanitarian crisis is Eastern Ghouta, an area 40 minutes away from Damascus. Reports have stated there are over 400,000 people in need of aid in this particular area.The constant fighting has prevented aid workers from reaching those who require aid. Malnutrition is the main problem of the moment, however, humanitarian convoys carrying aid in the form of food and medicine are constantly under threat of Syrian government bombs and shelling, also killing innocent people in the process. The topic of humanitarian access has been a paramount issue in all of the Geneva peace talks, with unfortunately no complete solution being settled on over the multiple peace talks.

Cessation of Hostilities:

The cessation of hostilities has been the top priority of every Geneva peace talk, evident in the Geneva Communique and Kofi Annan’s six-point plan (2012). However the notion of “violence” and “hostilities” have been terms disagreed upon in meaning by both the Syrian government and the opposition. The Assad delegation has framed violence as strictly “terrorism” on behalf of the opposition, while the opposition views “violence” as all war hostilities. Throughout the Geneva talks, every UN Envoy has highlighted the cessation of hostilities as a top priority, particularly for humanitarian access to reach civilians trapped in the seven-year long civil war.

Constitutional Issues

The drafting of a new constitution following the implementation of a transitional government has been a key issue in the talks. Key concerns include whether Syria should be governed under Sharia Law or as a Multi-Ethnic Democracy, as well as the existence of certain unchecked powers awarded to the president of the regime, which require amending in the new constitution.

Formation of Transitional Government

Throughout the talks, the UN has prioritized the establishment of a transitional government in Syria. The proposed plan includes a transitional period of 18 months, beginning with the resignation of the current leader, Bashar al-Assad, and the implementation of a transitional body with full executive powers. This body would then focus on the development of a new constitution and implement a free and fair election structure.

United Nations

(Specifically the UN Special envoy to Syria: Koffi Annan (Feb-Aug 2012), Lakhdar Brahimi (Aug 2012-May 2014), Staffan de Mistura (July 2014-Present)

Recognizes that change in Syria is necessary and avoidable. Syria’s political state will be led differently.
Each side in the Syrian conflict has extremely strong views, with the government claiming that this opposition groups are ‘terrorists’ and don’t represent much of the Syrian population.
Brahimi desired to bring both parties together but recognizes that he cannot create or force a solution. He stresses the importance of “listening” to both sides.
Brahimi stressed that the Syrian conflict is the largest threat to peace and security in the world. Vouches for the Syrian government and opposition groups to recognize the pain and suffering they are inflicting on their own population.
Both Brahimi & Mistura voice their refusal to allow the use of chemical weapons, claiming it as “outrageous”.
UN Envoy Mistura is supportive of Saudi-led efforts to create a unified opposition to exist (Riyadh 2.0 meeting) seeing this goal as important in future peace talks between Syrian Govvernment and Opposition.
UN Envoy Mistura aims to implement all UNSC resolutions and ensure that the Geneva Communique (2012) is acted upon.
United Nations Security Council (Led by the United States and Russia)

(September 2013) The UNSC voted in favour of a resolution supporting the demand for Assad to destroy Syria’s stockpile of chemical weapons (although not punitive if Assad doesn’t comply).
(February 22 2014) UNSC passed a resolution to allow humanitarian aid to flow into Syria. Secretary General Ban-Ki Moon was not happy for the prolonged time it took, as he stated that humanitarian aid should be “allowed by virtue of international law”.
However, no UN sanctions will be installed on any power in Syria who blocks the flow of aid (This is the reason why Russia signed onto it).
International Syria Support Group (Formed in 2016 for Geneva III)

ISSG is chaired by the Russia & U.S, and 19 other members. Aimed at finding a diplomatic solution to the Syrian Crisis.

ISSG aimed for a 6-month time frame (Dec 2015 agreement) for a political transition process.
Endorsed the 2012 Geneva Communique, and seeks words on paper to become action: Implementation of UNSC Resolution 2042 & 2043
Recommitment to a sustained cessation of armed violence
Cessation of armed violence must be sustained with immediate, credible and visible actions by the Govt of Syria.
Govt must allow immediate and full humanitarian access to UN humanitarian organizations to areas affected by the fighting.
ISSG understanding that a global approach (headed by the U.S & Russia) through diplomatic channels is the way forward for solving Syria’s crisis. Very different perspective to UN’s Special Envoy to Syria, Lakhdar Brahimi.
The Syrian Arab Republic (led by permanent representative Bashar Jafaari)

Seeking Syrian-Syrian discussions with the opposition groups, not led by global powers (against ISSG framework). Allowing the presence of UN envoys only as a “mediator”.
(Jan 2014, Geneva II): wants to implement Geneva I commique , but views it as problematic as it calls for the removal of President Bashar Al-Assad from power, a removal seen as unacceptable from the Republic's perspective. Instead the Republic seeks proposes that peace can be accomplished in an alternative method.
Calls for the end of terrorism in Syria and the subsequent violence because a transitional political settlement cannot occur with terrorism occurring.
Desires the Arab League Observers and UN  (Kofi, Moon and Brahimi) to all support the clause against violence/terrorism, which they see as the opposition's primary for of violence)
(Feb, 2017, Geneva IV)
The republic once again states that combating terrorism should be the main priority.
Requested UN Envoy Mistura to investigate and issue a statement condemning continuous suicide attacks by “terrorist” groups associated with the Syrian opposition (particularly by Jabat Al-Nusra)
High Negotiations Committee (21 members) – led by Naser al-Hariri during Geneva IV

National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces

Dedicated to establishing a civil state, under democratic rule.
Does not desire to  have any discussions or negotiations with Bashar Al-Assad’s regime.
(Apr 2016, Geneva III): HNC is rigidly against Russian interference in Syria and lift blockades and stop ongoing sieges before it would return to UN-sponsored peace talks in Geneva (Note: HNC walks out on Feb 2nd 2016).
The HNC aims to unify all opposition groups to the Assad regime, it has however lost the support of the Kurdish National Council after the conclusion of Geneva IV
(Feb 2017, Geneva IV, 2017): Pleads for countries who respect human rights to take political steps to pressure  Assad’s government and his foreign backers (Russia & Iran). al-Hariri claims that he hasn’t found any country who takes his plea seriously due to the inaction on ensuring Assad halts his military campaign.
Claims that Iran has no ambition to ensure peace or reaching a political agreement for Syria’s conflict

Kurdish Democratic Union Party (PYD)

The Kurdish Democratic Union Party has been excluded from the Geneva Peace talks on the basis of its connection with the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK), which is listed as a terrorist organization by Turkey, the United States and the European Union. The PKK has been in dispute with Turkey since 1978, involved in a violent conflict that has claimed thousands of lives. Therefore as a result of this alleged connection, and in an effort to ensure the continued participation of Turkey, the PYD has been excluded from all Geneva talks. This has proved to be a contentious issue, as the military wing (YPG) of the PYD has been an effective force on the ground in the fight against the terrorist group the Islamic State (IS). However, although Salih Muslim, the leader of the PYD has dismissed any claims connecting his party with the PKK as false, and shown an interest in participating in the talks to determine the peaceful future of Syria, the PYD has yet to be included.

Islamic State (IS) & Jabhat al Nusra

The Islamic State (IS) and Jabhat al Nusra, also referred to as Tahrir al-sham – the Organization for the Liberation of the Levant or the Levant Liberation Committee, have been excluded from the talks based on their establishment as known terrorist organizations. In particular, Tahrir al-sham has been identified as a former Al-Qaeda affiliate, and has also been referred to as a reincarnation of Al-Qaeda. The official exclusion of these groups as members of the peace talks is arguably more of a formality, as neither group would be inclined to participate of their own volition, if given the option at all.

Civil Society Organizations

There are several civil society groups that have formed and persisted in the midst of the Syrian conflict and in the face of government restriction. These include organizations such as Save Our Syria, Syrian Women’s Movement, The Syrian Network for Human Rights (SNHR), and many more. These groups make an effort to prioritize humanitarian and civilian needs during the conflict. They have shown an interest in participating in the peace talks as overseers, in hopes to highlight the important issues experienced at the local level, which are often forgotten or ignored by elites, but have been excluded thus far. The UN has expressed reluctance to formally include civil society groups based on legal constraints as well as the general consensus among elite decision makers that civil groups fail to have any real impact.

After several years and seven rounds of peace talks, the Geneva Peace Talks can be regarded as a failure. The focus of the Geneva talks was to put an end to the conflict and establish a new future for Syria by addressing several key issues, including the cessation of hostilities, ensuring humanitarian access, the formation of a transitional government and the drafting of a new constitution. Despite numerous attempts by the opposition and the regime, as well as local and international actors over the years to reach an agreement, these issues proved to be insurmountable, as talk after talk ended in stalemate – some after only a few days. The failure to reach an agreement regarding Syria’s path to peace has left the country embroiled in the same violent crisis that has plagued the region for almost a decade.

The failure of the talks to reach an agreement and put an end to the hostilities left hundreds of thousands of people dead, and many more displaced as the war continued over the course of the Geneva peace talks. The use of violence against the population, including bombings and attacks in the form of chemical weapons, continued throughout the talks. As a result of the fighting and continued threat of bombings, aid workers were often unable to reach the population and provide proper care, and the sporadic access and availability of humanitarian aid, which constitutes another key unresolved issue, contributed to the steady increase in civilian casualties. As a result of the violence and lack of humanitarian relief, the world has experienced an outpouring of refugees from Syria as individuals are forced to abandon their homes as they seek to escape the conflict with their lives.

The refusal of the Syrian President Bashar al-Assad to vacate his leadership position in order to make way for a transitional government, leading to the implementation of free and fair elections, presented a major obstacle throughout the Geneva talks. Without first being able to establish a transitional government, the goal of drafting a new constitution that would provide more effective checks on the power of the next Syrian ruler was also not achieved. Therefore, without reaching an agreement regarding new terms of governance, the democratic transition envisioned for Syria by the UN and other international actors within the talks could not be realized. As a result, Geneva brought Syria no closer to escaping the corrupt authoritarian regime that was personally responsible for countless human rights violations and the slaughter of its own people.

Geneva is regarded as a failure because of the lack of results each talk produced on the key issues, and more importantly, because of the continued violence and persecution Syrian civilians continued to face throughout. The resulting number of deaths and displaced individuals is a testament to the lack of effectiveness these talks ultimately had. Succinctly, these talks are regarded as a failure because despite the years of negotiations, the peace talks in Geneva did not put an end to the violent crisis or human rights violations, or effectively establish a democratic path to peace for Syria.

Final communiqué of the Geneva I Conference

What is the Geneva II Conference on Syria?

Ambiguous Rebel Statements on the Geneva Negotiations

Main developments and differences between the Vienna (2015) and Geneva (2016) meetings

Geneva III: The Stillborn Conference and the Endemic Failure of the International Community

Syria’s Transition Governance & Constitutional Options Under U.N. Security Council Resolution 2254

The 3 problems that doomed the Syria peace talks

Geneva IV and the shifting shape of Syrian diplomacy'

Syria's "deescalation zones" explained.

UN Special Envoy Staffano de Mistura's statement on latest Syrian peace talks

Altug, Bayram. “Kurdish Group in Geneva Talks Excludes PKK/PYD.” Anadolu Agency, November 30, 2017. http://aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/kurdish-group-in-geneva-talks-excludes-pkk-pyd/986082

In this source, Bayram Altug summarizes the situation surrounding the controversial exclusion of the Kurdish Democratic Union Party (PYD) from the Syrian Peace Talks at the end of 2017. The PYD, which had yet to be included in the talks at the time of this article, was excluded on the basis of their connection to the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK). The PKK has been excluded on the basis of their involvement in a hostile conflict with Turkey, which has lasted several decades and claimed thousands of lives, as well as their globally recognized status as a terrorist group. As a result of their exclusion and the blatant rejection of their inclusion on behalf of all the opposition parties, the PYD took measures including the dismantling of all political parties not in support of them in the north of Syria, and the detainment of members of certain parties, namely the KNC.

Geis, Anna, and Gabi Schlag. "The Facts Cannot be Denied': Legitimacy, War and the use of Chemical Weapons in Syria." Global Discourse, vol. 7, no. 2-3, 2017, pp. 285-305.

This article takes a modern approach through the analysis of different forms of media to analyze how the use of chemical weapons by the Assad regime resulted in international intervention in the Syrian conflict. The international community, especially the United States in particular has an obligation to protect civilians who are not purposely being oppressed under their own government through the “right to protect” (RTP) protocol. However, the extent of such involvement is different on a case by case basis. The use of chemical weapons, and the subsequent media portrayals (social media pictures and YouTube videos) of such attacks significantly altered the perception of how much aid and military presence was needed in Syria to combat these atrocities. This is especially true for liberal democracies, who feel the pressure to get involved due to the clear juxtaposition against its own value system, and their beliefs about how governments should treat their citizens.

“Geneva Press Conference: Bashaar Jafari Syrian Representative to UN”. UN Webcast, January 20 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KaqptxhLwlg&t=359s

This source depicts a press conference held by the UN representative from Syria, Bashaar Jafari who is discussing the priority of the cessation of hostilities and the importance of implementing the agreed principles set out by Kofi Annan during Geneva I talks. This speech clearly depicts an agitated Jafari who clearly endorses the view that Syrian opposition groups aren’t only acting outside the law by violently rebelling against Assad, but has labeled their acts as treasonous and terrorist in nature. This deep polarization by both sides clearly demonstrates (at the time) how far divided both the government of Assad is with the opposition group, viewing them as illegitimate actors, even going so far as to demand them to choose to “be firefighters or arsonists, but you cannot be both”. Most importantly, this speech depicts clearly the political reality of the Assad regime, viewing the conflict as a barrage of foreign-backed hostilities against the Syrian state who’s unwilling to compromise on issues relating to state sovereignty and stability (Ex. state institutions and the monopoly to use force against treasonous rebel forces).

Geneva Press Conference. “United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki Moon and UN Envoy to Syria Lakhdar Brahimi”. UN Webcast. January 22 2014

www.youtube.com/watch?v=BnYFH-cdLMk

This source is a crucial starting point for understanding the peace process taking place in Geneva. Both Ban Ki Moon and Brahimi describe the political situation and objectives held by the Syrian government and the opposition. The most important component of this press conference is the UN delegation presenting evidence that both groups are very far from achieving an agreement. This specific meeting took place during the Geneva Conference but at a time where all parties still haven’t sat face to face with another, demonstrating how strained these peace talks were from the onset. Critically, this source also presented information on the issue of terrorism and religious extremism in the Syrian conflict. Both Brahimi and Moon demonstrated great disdain and urgency to implement the Geneva Communique which aims to eradicate terrorism through the cessation of hostilities. However, such information certainly assures that even the UN recognizes the emergence of extremist elements within the opposition in Syria, which at the time of this press conference was a divided group comprised of various religious, ethnic and ideological backgrounds. Most importantly, this source represents a key piece of the Geneva peace talk timeline, particularly important for understanding the fluid dynamics associated with a conflict that continues to rage on seven years later.

“Kofi Annan: Syria need UN presence”. CNN, April 5 2012.

This source is early evidence by the UN to ensure that the cessation of hostilities is the top priority in regards to the Syrian civil war. This short speech by Kofi Annan, as UN-Arab League Envoy to Syria depict a mediator highlighting the importance of the implementation of a plan that allows humanitarian aid access to the millions of Syrians trapped in “no-mans land” due to violence between the Assad regime and the opposition. Annan presents his plan to address the Syrian conflict through the deployment of a “small and nimble UN presence” with a flexible mandate that can address the fluid military situation. Kofi Annan’s effort throughout his speech is to bring both parties to the table in an effort to achieve the goal of securing a ceasefire, known later as the Geneva Communique. Most importantly, this source is crucial for understanding the evolving policy of the UN regarding Syria when compared to subsequence attempts by UN Envoys such as Al-Brahimi and Mistura to produce positive and productive policy to ending the Syrian crisis.

Phillips, Christopher. The Battle for Syria : International Rivalry in the New Middle East, Yale University Press, 2016.

Christopher Phillips account of the Syrian conflict is a crucial source to understanding the international dynamic that influenced the beginning of the Arab Spring revolution in Syria and across the MENA region. Phillips through academic research depicts the 21st century phenomenon of utilizing proxy warfare as a method to achieving state interests by “Great Powers” such as the U.S and Russia. But Phillip also presents the humanitarian element of the ongoing Syrian conflict which he rightfully claims as the “worst humanitarian disaster in the 21st century”. In describing the opposition forces present in Syria, Phillips conducted profound  research to illustrate a fragmented opposition that’s composed of thousands of militias, usually based on a certain religious ideology, ethnic group or region, a phenomenon that has only fueled the inability by the opposition in Syria to achieve any single umbrella that’s able to defeat Assad in any possible manner. Research regarding the specific actors involved in Syria, particularly the opposition side is crucial to comprehending claims by the Assad regime of an opposition group comprised of extremist-elements, which in fact is very evident in Phillips research. Most importantly, when utilizing Phillip’s research it become clear that “Great Powers” in their ability to materialy support either side has made the Geneva Peace Talks not only obsolete, but an ineffective method to conducting peace negotiations in the 21st century.

Pitrof, Amanda. "Too Many Cooks in the Kitchen: Examining the Major Obstacles to Achieving Peace in Syria's Civil War." Pepperdine Dispute Resolution Law Journal, vol. 15, no. 1, 2015, pp. 157-182

A main criticism of the Syrian Peace Process is the presence of too many foreign actors intervening. In addition, the author also critiques the apparent disconnection between the countries in the U.N Security Council, specifically the differences between the U.S and Russia. These two countries’ respective entrances in the proxy war have acted as an obstacle in the advancement of any peace negotiations. This dynamic amplifies the elevated tensions between the Syrian government and the opposition in the form of the High Negotiations Committee (HNC). The HNC in itself is composed of several different opposition groups, representing various communities that desire different things out of a peace agreement. The HNC itself has experienced fracturing within its own ranks, as leaders of different groups hold some parts of the peace process in higher regard than others. The author argues that these peace negotiations have become a game of picking-sides and grandstanding rather than accomplishing any significant progress.

Sprusansky, Dale. "Tackling Syria's Humanitarian Crisis." Washington Report on Middle East Affairs, vol. 33, no. 3, 2014, pp. 51.

This source focuses on the humanitarian crisis happening in Syria as a result of the Syrian civil war. At the moment, Syria is divided into different jurisdictions, according to the group that is control at the time. It is the civilians who have experienced the worst of it, as displacement of Syrians from their homes has been the most pertinent humanitarian issue that the international community has been facing. It is without question that significant amounts of aid are required to take care of those seeking refuge, but the ongoing conflict between the Syrian government and rebel groups have make it increasingly harder to administer the aid. In addition, the presence of terrorist organizations such as ISIS, specifically the establishment of checkpoints around their territory prevents aid and aid workers from coming through. As a result, the rate of malnutrition amongst the displaced has sky rocketed, as little to no food or resources are available to them as a result of the fighting. No matter the amount of aid supplied, the problems posed by the lack to access to aid has marred the region since the onset of the conflict.

“Syria Conflict: Opposition Unveils Transition Plan.” BBC News, September 7, 2016. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-37294532

This source provides information regarding one of the key issues of the Syrian Peace Talks in Geneva, the establishment of a transitional government. The key features of the transitional plan include the stepping down of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad, the implementation of a transitional government, the drafting of a new constitution, and the implementation of a free and fair election structure within 18 months. Negotiations surrounding this issue have been a continuous struggle as Bashar al-Assad declines to step down, and thus the effective implementation of a transitional government remains a priority for the UN and a key issue within the talks.

Tahhan, Zena. “The Voices Missing from Syria’s Peace Talks.” Aljazeera, March 23 2017. http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2017/03/syria-war-missing-voices-syria-peace-talks-170322073131728.html

In this source, Zena Tahhan takes a nonconventional approach to the Syrian Peace Talks by introducing some of the Syrian civil society groups, and highlighting the issue of their exclusion from the talks. Unlike the major actors participating or not participating in the peace talks, civil society groups are non-profit, non-governmental organizations without political ties, made up largely of local individuals that focus on humanitarian and civilian needs. Civil Society groups are illegal in Syria, but regardless of the severe oppression they face, several organizations have developed throughout the duration of the war. The larger groups, such as Save Our Syria, are seeking a place in the peace talks, where they believe they could act as a mediator, and their knowledge and understanding of local conditions could be an asset in determining the direction of the talks.

Altug, Bayram. “Kurdish Group in Geneva Talks Excludes PKK/PYD.” Anadolu Agency, November 30, 2017.

CNN. “Syrian Civil War: Timeline and Fast Facts” https://www.cnn.com/2013/08/27/world/meast/syria-civil-war-fast-facts/index.html. Accessed: 25 March 2018.

Condult, Dara. ”Why Assad’s Military Gains don’t Translate into Success in Syrian Peace Talks.” The Conversation. March 9, 2017.  http://theconversation.com/why-assads-military-gains-dont-translate-to-success-in-syrian-peace-talks-74275. Accessed 21 March 2018

Geis, Anna, and Gabi Schlag. "The Facts Cannot be Denied': Legitimacy, War and the use of Chemical Weapons in Syria." Global Discourse, vol. 7, no. 2-3, 2017, pp. 285-305.

Geneva Press Conference. "Bashaar Jafari Syrian Representative to UN”. UN Webcast, January 20 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KaqptxhLwlg&t=359s

Geneva Press Conference. “United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki Moon and UN Envoy to Syria Lakhdar Brahimi”. UN Webcast. January 22 2014 www.youtube.com/watch?v=BnYFH-cdLMk

Human Rights Watch “U.S, Russia: Investigate Attacks on Civilians” https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/05/16/us-russia-investigate-attacks-civilians. Accessed 25 March 2018.

Joujati, Rafif. “Women are Invisible at the Syria Peace Talks.” PassBlue: Independent Coverage of the UN. February 23, 2017. http://www.passblue.com/2017/02/23/whos-missing-at-the-syria-peace-talks-women/. Accessed 21 March 2018.

“Kofi Annan: Syria need UN presence”. CNN, April 5 2012. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j8y8OXCZmtw

Lund, Aaron. “Everything you need to know about the Latest Syria Peace Talks.” IRIN: The Inside Story on emergencies. February 21, 2017.
https://www.irinnews.org/analysis/2017/02/21/everything-you-need-know-about-latest-syria-peace-talks

Lund, Aaron. “The Road to Geneva: The Who, When, and How of Syria’s Peace Talks.” Carnegie Middle East Center. January 29, 2016. http://carnegie-mec.org/diwan/62631?lang=en. Accessed 20 March 2018.

Mroue, Bassem. “Syria’s Kurds Leave Geneva After being excluded from Peace Talks.” CTV News. January 30, 2016.  https://www.ctvnews.ca/world/syria-s-kurds-leave-geneva-after-being-excluded-from-peace-talks-1.2758480. Accessed 16 March 2018.

Phillips, Christopher. The Battle for Syria : International Rivalry in the New Middle East, Yale University Press, 2016.

Pitrof, Amanda. "Too Many Cooks in the Kitchen: Examining the Major Obstacles to Achieving Peace in Syria's Civil War." Pepperdine Dispute Resolution Law Journal, vol. 15, no. 1, 2015, pp. 157-182

Reuters.“Scores of Rebels Killed in Syrian Government Ambush” https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-crisis-ambush/scores-of-rebels-killed-in-syrian-government-ambush-idUKBRE9BQ07X20131227 . Accessed 25 March 2018.

“Save our Syria: Who we are.” Save Our Syria.
http://www.saveoursyria.org/who-we-are.html . Accessed 23 March, 2018.

Sprusansky, Dale. "Tackling Syria's Humanitarian Crisis." Washington Report on Middle East Affairs, vol. 33, no. 3, 2014, pp. 51.

“Syria Conflict: Opposition Unveils Transition Plan.” BBC News, September 7, 2016. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-37294532 . Accessed 12 March, 2018.

Syrian Observatory For Human Rights. “Daily Reports” http://www.syriahr.com/en/. Accessed March 25th 2018.

“Syrian PYD Kurds not Invited to Geneva IV Peace Talks: Muslim.” Ekurd Daily. February 14, 2017. http://ekurd.net/syrian-kurds-not-geneva-iv-2017-02-14. Accessed 15 March 2018.

Tahhan, Zena. “The Voices Missing from Syria’s Peace Talks.” Aljazeera, March 23 2017, http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2017/03/syria-war-missing-voices-syria-peace-talks-170322073131728.html. Accessed 17 March 2018.

“Tahrir al-Sham: Al-Qaeda’s Latest Incarnation in Syria.”  BBC News. February 28, 2017. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-38934206. Accessed 17 March 2018.

The Independent. “Syrian Civil War Timeline: Tracking Five Years of Conflict” https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syrian-civil-war-timeline-tracking-five-years-of-conflict-a6929411.html. Accessed 25 March 2018.

The New Arab. “War in Syria: Timeline of Key Events” https://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/news/2015/3/13/timeline-syria-4-years-of-devastation . Accessed 25 March 2018.