Our team designed a web-based resource for adult educators who teach community-based, non-credit workshops and courses for community colleges and non-profit organizations.  The intent was to create an asynchronous resource for adult educators that is easy to access and allows for the opportunity to connect with peers to provide feedback, share resources, and create a sense of community.  We did this by creating resource, community, and feedback sections in our tool.  It was important for us to design a user-friendly web-based resource to maximize a users learnability, efficiency, and satisfaction with our design. We used Issa and Isaias’ (2015) idea of designing a resource with a user-centred approach, rather than designing a system for every end user.  We also initially launched this tool with a focus on resources that educate on adult learning theories and adult learning strategies, as we felt our target audience were professionals in the fields they were teaching, such as nursing, but didn’t necessarily have academic training in the area of education and would initially benefit from these resources.  The idea and vision for our tool was definitely that of one of our team members.  In the beginning, I was confused at times about what the vision of the project was, as the ideas were always very big and not focused.  In terms of my contributions, I attended team meetings and asked questions to focus the vision of the project.  As well as, contributed to all aspects of the design; none of us had clear design roles.  Our team decided that each of us should touch every aspect of the tool to ensure it was designed efficiently.  Once tool was designed, I took the lead on creating a PowerPoint for our presentation and worked with our team to split the presentation up.

The main features of usability we focused on were learnability, efficiency, and satisfaction (Issa & Isaias, 2015), as we felt these were key usability features to ensure a user-friendly tool.  We felt our web-based design was intuitive for the user, and can be easily learned by reading and clicking.  We also felt that using specific buttons, interlinks, and menus easily allowed the user to go to specific areas of our website and was efficient.  And that overall simple design of our tool, would be satisfying to the user.

Overall, our team worked well together.  We didn’t have any issues with getting work done and splitting up tasks.  Our biggest challenges came from using Google Sites and the limited functionality this freeware provides.  I have never used Google Sites before and going forward would likely not use this freeware again.  As a novice website creator, I think WordPress is more robust and has more apps that can enable more functionality on a website.

I’m a big advocate for the use of technology in education and designing online asynchronous learning opportunities for learners.  I feel that the resource that we created will be a great online resource for adult educators.  However, as I reflect back on this class and the readings we’ve done, I have to say that Crawford (2021) made a huge impact on me in Atlas of AI, Chapter 1: Earth.  I will forever think about the environmental impacts that technology has on the Earth, as I always thought of it as a more environmentally friendly option.  As an advocate of technology in education, I’m contributing to the devastation that mining has on the Earth and am guilty of overlooking this in the technological process and know that going forward will look for more environmentally friendly technology solutions.

References

Crawford, K., & Yale University Press Complete eBook-Package 2021. (2021). Atlas of AI: Power, politics, and the planetary costs of artificial intelligence. Yale University Press.

Issa T. & Isaias P. (2015) Usability and human computer interaction (HCI). In Sustainable Design (pp. 19-35). Springer, London. https://doi-org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/10.1007/978-1-4471-6753-2_2

A Case Study on the Utilization of Interactive eBooks in Post Secondary Education

An eBook is an electronic book that can be read digitally on a computer screen, tablet, e-book reader, or mobile phone.  While this may seem like a simple definition, as eBooks improve and become more interactive, it becomes increasingly more difficult to define what an eBook is and what it can do.  Interactive eBooks are no longer just a PDF version of a textbook.  An interactive eBook has various elements that educators and learners can interact with.  In addition to text, it contains rich media such as digital images, GIFs, videos, audio files, interactive graphs and charts, polls, maps, presentation slides, file uploads, downloadable cloud files, LMS integration, engagement insights, and/or feedback.  Initially, eBooks were simply electronic versions of its printed counterpart, utilizing one-way interaction.  However, developers of eBook technology continue to push the boundaries of how an eBook can perform and what has never been developed before.  We know that technology changes us and the world around us.  If it didn’t, we would still require oral communication to transmit history and without paper, books would still be printed on silk scrolls that only the wealthy could afford.  Who has demanded this shift?  We know that educators and learners alike have changed their attitudes towards teaching and learning, or have textbook publishers, who have had to become educational technology experts played a role in this shift.  My case study aims to analyze the utilization of interactive eBooks in post secondary education from the perspective of a user who actively supports and teaches students using this technology.

A typical Monday for me, includes working from home, getting ready for the work week, running weekly errands such as picking up groceries or going to the pet store, and doing some school work.  When I set up for this task, I thought it would be best to keep track of what I paid attention to on a Monday, as my Mondays are pretty consistent and, because I work from home on Monday’s, I would have the time to sit down each hour and reflect on what I paid attention to.  For me this task ended up being a bit more time consuming then I originally imagined; and I’m not sure how natural it was, as I was constantly thinking about what needed to be included in my reflection and grabbing my phone to make notes.

Here is how my Monday went…

I woke up at 8:30 a.m., before my alarm went off; this is pretty normal for me.  I quickly checked my phone; I just had regular notifications – don’t forget to track your breakfast, and Twitter and Apple news updates.  I immediately got up and the dog was at my feet ready to go outside for his walk.  I got dressed and brushed my hair so I was somewhat presentable if ran into a neighbour during the morning trek.  Down the stairs we went for Buckley’s first walk of the day.  I got home and gave him is morning treat.  I’m not a coffee drinker, so back upstairs I went.  Instead of getting ready for the day, I was already distracted from the thoughts I had during my morning walk with Buckley.  I opened my computer.  It was the first week after spring term ended and I knew that there would be final assignments that needed downloading, grades to be exported and populated into PeopleSoft so that students would be able to see their final grades, and instructors who would need some tech support to wrap up before their summer break.  Again, I checked my phone and during my walk it notified me of some Slack messages that I had received; I quickly read through and replied to the messages while my computer was turning on.  I spent the next 90 minutes doing some really typical work tasks.  Reading and replying to emails, exporting grades from Moodle, entering end dates on the spring Moodle courses, texting with colleagues, and setting up appointments to provide some one-on-one tech support with my colleagues.  I also had an assignment due for school that day, so I also opened the assignment so that I could do one more final edit before getting the links ready to hand it in.  On Monday’s, as I mentioned above, I run errands for the week.  I was in desperate need to hit a grocery store, and was also mentally making a list in my head.

Around 10:30, Buckley distracted me.  He was signaling that he needed something.  I looked at my phone and realized that he had missed his 9:30 a.m. breakfast and may need to have a quick bathroom break.  I also realized that I had not fully got ready for the day and that I had also not eaten breakfast.  I went downstairs and fed Buckley.  While I was feeding him and he was eating, I did a quick social media scroll.  I also thought about my garden/flowers needing water and that I should measure to buy a new pea fence.  I went back upstairs and quickly checked my work emails, I heard the lawn care company show up, which I forget about and while I was doing this and checked outside the window of my room to make sure that all was well for them to go about their work.  I got ready for the day, however, while I was getting ready, I was listening for notifications on my phone and computer.  After getting ready, I finally went downstairs and made breakfast.  While eating breakfast, I sat at the kitchen table with a copy of a magazine that I publish.  I edited it.  Buckley signaled me again that he needed to go outside for a bathroom break.  I thought about how nice it would be to have a backyard.  I live in a condo and a quick bathroom break means harnessing up and going for a quick walk.

I got back from my walk and finished editing the magazine I help publish – ACUA Vitae.  I had to focus on this task, as I had not had a chance to read any of the articles for content and always want to make sure the contributors to ACUA Vitae are accurately credited for articles they write and photos they take.  I purposely continued to do this at my kitchen table.  My computer was upstairs and I wouldn’t be able to hear notifications, which would tempt me to focus my attention else where, and although my phone was next to me, I ignored all notifications while I did this.  Towards the end of editing ACUA Vitae, which took 80 minutes; I started to get distracted.  My thoughts moved towards a trip I have planned the following weekend to Waterton National Park and Kalispell, MT.   I realized that I had to book a hotel in Kalispell and was thinking that renting a car might be a better way to travel for this trip.  I had to really focus on getting the editing done, so that I didn’t automatically pick up my phone and start researching hotels and car rentals.  Once I was finished, I made a list of things that I needed to pick up during my errands and spent some time quickly researching hotels.  I also went back upstairs to check on work emails; I read and replied to emails.

It was early afternoon, and work was pretty much wrapped for the day.  I had a list of errands to run.  I ran my errands.  I was more difficult to track what I was doing, as I was driving, grocery shopping, etc.  I wanted to get these things done and found that I didn’t stop to reflect on what I was doing or where my attention was focused.  I did note, that while driving, I listened to the radio and looked at a few notifications that came in on my phone.  At one point, there was an emergency vehicle and I was very focused on getting my vehicle out of the way of this fast-moving fire truck.   I got home and put things away; again, I was thinking about a load of laundry that needed to be transferred to the dryer and an errand that had to be done that day in the early evening.  I also remembered that I hadn’t eaten lunch, and decided to make and eat lunch.  I took a break, ate lunch, scrolled social media and the Internet, and had the TV on, and found it interesting that with all this stimulation around me, decided to take a nap.  I also found it interesting that my nights are pretty routine but, again, I multitask through the evening.  I spent about an hour focused on reading for school, and then watched TV, texted with family and friends, folded a load of laundry, researched car rental companies, put the load of laundry away, got ready for bed, walked the dog, watered my garden, planted some strawberries, and did some online shopping.

Graphical Analysis…

I purposely created a pie chart with all of the tasks I completed on this Monday.  It looked messy but I thought, there was no better way to depict the organized chaos (or multitasking) events that took place throughout my day.  I was curious how I spent my day, so I tried to categorized the tasks I completed and found it interesting that a big part of my day was spent caring for Buckley; I wasn’t surprised that work and school tasks occupy a lot of my time as well.  The tasks that don’t take a lot of time – checking phone notifications and scrolling social media, are distractions or multitasking events that I performed while completing a primary and secondary task.  I’m also very aware, that I likely did not track every single “thing” that I was paying attention to.  Last, I wanted to get an idea of how much time I spend multitasking vs focusing on one activity; I am not surprised that the majority of my day is spent multitasking.

Attention and Education…

Citton (2017) indicates that teachers and students have different attentional systems and cognitive modes. Teachers imagine lessons that require deep attention from students, while student have formed habits of hyper-attention, allowing themselves to switch their focus rapidly among different tasks.  Based on the analysis of my typical Monday, I believe that humans of the digital age, including myself, are forming hyper-attention habits and are able to multitask using different information streams and require high levels of stimulation to keep focused.  Throughout my day, I was multitasking the majority of the day and some of the multitasking tasks were unnecessary distractions, but even with these distractions, I was able to focus my attention on a primary task.  Citton (2017) argues that attention is a commodity in short supply.  As we continue to form hyper-attention habits, deep attention may be something that we may have to commit to.  For myself, when I have to really pay attention to something, I have to remove my computer and phone so I am not tempted by a notification or to start multitasking.  As an educator, I feel pressure to ensure my students are able to learn using hyper-attention learning habits that they have formed growing up in a digital age so they are not bored.  For example, I recently learned that at the school I teach, more than 80% of the adult students we teach are completing their course work using phones.  I’ve always thought it was important to provide learning activities that are accessible on as many digital devices possible and to provide activities that are multi-modal and stimulate learning in different forms, but knowing that most of my students are using Moodle and completing readings and assignments on their phones, reinforces this for me.

References

Citton, Y. (2017).  Introduction and Conclusion: From Attention Economy to Attention Ecology.  In The Ecology of Attention.  John Wiley & Sons.

The five processes of media convergence are outlined below.

An explanation of my mind map can be heard below.

References

Jenkins, H. (2001, 06). Convergence? I diverge. Technology Review, 104, 93. https://www.proquest.com/magazines/convergence-i-diverge/docview/195347973/se-2?accountid=14656

Jenkins, H. (2006). Convergence culture: where old and new media collide. New York University Press. https://hdl-handle-net.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/2027/heb.05936

Who were these people, and how did/does each contribute to the development of artificial intelligence? How did/does each think “intelligence” could be identified?

Alan Matheson Turing was a British mathematician who used the theory of machine learning and computing to take a leading role in breaking Nazi cipher during WWII.  In one of Turning’s papers he discussed how to build and test intelligent machines.  He believed if a machine could engage with a human, without being detected as a machine, it demonstrated intelligence (Frankenfield, 2022).

John McCarthy was a professor whose research focused on artificial intelligence.  He has been referred to as the Father of AI and is known to have coined the term artificial intelligence at the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence.  McCarthy defined intelligence as an ability and believed that a system could process that ability to various degrees (Sutton, 2020).

Herb Simon has been referred to as one of the founding fathers of AI.  He is known for working with Allen Newell to develop a computer program that simulated human decision making.   Simon defined human intelligence, as a behaving system, and thought that the more complex environments we find ourselves in, the more complex our decision making becomes (The Decision Lab, 2021).

Marvin Minsky was a mathematician and computer scientist who cofounded the Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s Artificial Intelligence Lab in 1959 with John McCarthy (BBC News, 2016).  He believed a computer could replicate the functions of the human brain.  Minsky was driven by the concept that human intelligence for common sense reasoning could be imparted to computers or machines.

Timnit Gebru is a well-known scholar in the AI ethics community.  As a computer scientist she researches algorithmic bias.  Gebru believes intelligence can be used or misused for harmful, illegal, or unintentional purposes though human bias in coding.  Gebru believes that intelligence is embedded in everyday products and as humans we aren’t always able to distinguish between AI and machine learning (Woolery, 2022).

How do “machine (programming) languages” differ from human (natural) ones?

Human language is the principal method of communication, it is a system of spoken and written symbols, that humans have used to express themselves and their identities.  As time goes on, language evolves and changes.  Machine language is also a method of communication created by humans to communicate instructions to a machine or a computer (Harris, 2018).  There are several differences between human and machine language.  The most obvious may be that programming language was intended for machines.  Machine language doesn’t follow grammar rules and it doesn’t change depending on the context.  It also doesn’t evolve and develop like human languages do; there is no room for errors or improvement.  Finally, machine language is non-emotional; intonation or body language have no effect on machine language.

How does “machine (artificial) intelligence” differ from the human version?

Human intelligence is our ability to acquire skills and knowledge.  As Challot (2019) indicates, the AI community often measure intelligence by the skills exhibited by AI.  There are several ways that AI differs from human intelligence.  As humans we are able to adapt to changing environments by using different cognitive processes, AI has the ability to mimic human behaviour and actions.  As humans we use our brains to solve problems, remember, and think; AI relies on data and instructions from humans.  Humans rely on learning from past knowledge and experience; AI doesn’t think, it learns from data and performs tasks efficiently, however, it relies on human commands.  Finally, AI is designed to mimic human behavior, it isn’t able to make rationale decisions like humans (Vadapalli, 2021).

How does “machine learning” differ from human learning?

Machine learning involves exposing a computer to training data, and based on that data, the computer learns to process the data, which allows the computer to form predictions and judgments (Heilweil, 2020).  Human learning involves actively making sense of the world around us by acquiring new knowledge, behaviours, and skills.  Humans use their brains, bodies, and environment to learn; if humans are given new information, we can change how we think or feel about knowledge that we have.  As Heilweil (2020) points out, AI doesn’t have the ability to change how it predicts information.  This has led to AI predictions being biased; we often don’t know how bias is built into data or what data helped build it.

How do YOUR answers to these questions differ from what a machine could generate?

My responses to the above questions were derived by reviewing course contents, doing my own online searches and research, from my past work experience, and from my past learning through the MET program.  If I imagined responses to the above questions that only included artificial intelligence, it would exclude any information that I personally learned through the course readings, past work experience, and my past learning experiences in the MET program.  My reasoning process uses the knowledge that I currently have to draw the conclusions and create the explanations for the above questions.  For me personally, this knowledge and experience is drawn from my own teaching experience, as well as, my current and past experience and knowledge gained through work and educational experiences.  Artificial intelligence may not have the same experiences and knowledge that I possess, and therefore, if I compared my thoughts to what AI would produce on this topic, we would likely draw different conclusions.  Based on the research I’ve done for this assignment; I believe that my conclusions are more in-depth and thoughtful then if generated by AI.  I believe that humans form opinions better than machines and although humans have their own bias, they have the ability to identify their bias and have the ability to exclude their bias in thoughtful conclusions and explanations.

References

BBC News. (2016, January 26). AI pioneer Marvin Minsky dies aged 88. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-35409119

Biography.com Editors. (2020, July 22). Alan Turing. Biography. https://www.biography.com/scientist/alan-turing

Chollet, F. (2019, November 5). On the measure of intelligence. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1911.01547

Frankenfield, J. (2022, February 22). What is the Turing test? Investopedia. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/t/turing-test.asp

Harris, A. (2018, November 2). Human languages vs. programming languages – Ana Harris. Medium. https://medium.com/@anaharris/human-languages-vs-programming-languages-c89410f13252

Heilweil, R. (2020, February 18). Algorithms and bias, explained. Vox. https://www.vox.com/recode/2020/2/18/21121286/algorithms-bias-discrimination-facial-recognition-transparency

Sutton, R. S. (2020). John McCarthy’s definition of intelligence. Journal of Artificial General Intelligence, 11(2), 66-67.  https://doi.org/10.2478/jagi-2020-0003

The Decision Lab. (2021, March 2). Herbert Simon. The Decision Lab. https://thedecisionlab.com/thinkers/computer-science/herbert-simon

Vadapalli, P. (2021, December 20). AI vs Human Intelligence: Difference Between AI & Human Intelligence. upGrad Blog. https://www.upgrad.com/blog/ai-vs-human-intelligence/#:%7E:text=While%20Human%20Intelligence%20aims%20to,analogous%2C%20but%20machines%20are%20digital.

Woolery, E. (2022). Timnit Gebru: Machine learning, bias, and product design. Timnit Gebru: Machine Learning, Bias, and Product Design – DesignBetter. https://www.designbetter.co/conversations/timnit-gebru

Human Computer Interaction (HCI) is a field of research that combines computer and social sciences, engineering, and design.  HCI is a concept in the system development process that focuses on understanding and creating software and other technology that people want to use, are able to use, and find effective when used.  And the usability concept, and the methods and tools to encourage it, achieve it, and measure it are now touchstones in the culture of computing (Issa & Isaias, 2015, p. 19).  Wikipedia (2022) defines usability as the capacity of a system to provide a condition for its users to perform tasks safely, effectively, and efficiently while enjoying the experience.  Issa and Isaias (2015), further define usability, to include the quality of interaction, ease of use of a system, and the improvements related to use that can be made during the system design, as outlined in the figure below.

To further define usability from an educational perspective, usability should include the quality of interaction and ease of use of a system for both educators and learners.  It should also include the improvements to use during the system design and should include feedback from not only the system design team, but educators and students who will be using the system.  Further, considerations should be given to the usability of a system and how it helps educators and learners to achieve educational goals and improve the learning process.  A system or technology can have all the features and functions programmed to maximize usability, but at the end of the day, if doesn’t align with an educator’s educational goals or improve the learning process for a learner, it will go unused.  Finally, educational usability is not simply for user-technology/system interactions, educational systems have several interactions to consider including student-teacher, student-student, teacher-content, and student-content interactions (Gunesekera et al., 2019).

Woolgar’s (1990) account of usability gone wrong detailed several examples of how the design and production of a new computer resulted in and demonstrates the process of configuring the user.  In one of the examples, Ruth, a tester of the system, attempts to plug in a printer.  She is unable to do this because the computer socket is not compatible with the printer plug, making it impossible to complete the task.  In another example, users were asked to test the text in the computer manuals.  At the stage in the development of the computer, it was not fully known how the computer would fully function making the text being tested in the manual incomplete. It was perceived that if the manual failed, the “fault” was blamed on the user, not the computer.  However, given the design of the computer had not been settled, it cannot be determined if either the computer or the user is at fault.  In both examples, the failures could be explained by issues and challenges with the computer and the step in the design process, not the user or the functionality of the computer.

Issa and Isaias (2015) indicate the success, productivity, and efficiency of a system or technology includes involving the user to influence system design, integrating different knowledge and expertise in the design process, ensuring the design process is iterative, as well as, integrating usability evaluation.  They achieve this by detailing specific usability criteria, which includes learnability, flexibility, robustness, efficiency, memorability, errors, and satisfaction (Issa & Isaias, 2015).  These criteria help the developers create the best, most sellable product.  In addition to usability, Issa and Isaias (2015) also factor in utility.  This functionality ensures that users can do what they want the technology to do and does what users need the technology to do.

Woolgar (1990) indicates that the design and production of a new system or technology gives the design team the ability to shape or arrange the user so that they can complete a designated task.  He also argues that having a concept of usability and detailed evaluation criteria will present valid research/test results.  Lastly, he argues that the technology and the user should be held accountable for failed usability.

References

Gunesekera, A. I., Bao, Y., & Kibelloh, M. (2019). The role of usability on e-learning user interactions and satisfaction: A literature review. Journal of Systems and Information Technology, 21(3), 368-394. https://doi.org/10.1108/JSIT-02-2019-0024

Issa T. & Isaias P. (2015) Usability and Human Computer Interaction (HCI). Sustainable Design. London: Springer. https://doi-org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/10.1007/978-1-4471-6753-2_2

Wikipedia. (2022, May 7). Usability. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usability

Woolgar, S. (1990). Configuring the user: the case of usability trials. The Sociological Review, 38 (1_suppl), 58-99. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-954X.1990.tb03349.x

As I started this assignment, I knew I wanted to review a historical document that was as relevant today as it was when it was published.  Below you’ll find the results of my research and my thoughts on the findings.

A Corpus

It has been almost five decades since the report Indian Control of Indian Education: Policy Paper (hereinafter the First Nation Control of First Nation Education) was presented to the Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development by the National Indian Brothership (hereinafter the Assembly of First Nations) in 1973.  It should be noted that this paper was reprinted in 1976 and 2010.  For the purposes of this assignment, I reviewed the original document and the reprinted version that was published in 2010.

According to the Assembly of First Nations (2010), the articulated statement of values presented in the original paper is as true today as it was in its inception.  And after reviewing both papers, I have to agree with this statement.  When you compare the two papers, there isn’t a lot of changes from the original findings and recommendations.  In the second paper that was published in 2010, outcomes and successes are included and outlined.  Despite the framework not changing significantly in decades, the Assembly of First Nations (2010), state that little has been done to implement the original framework.  Again, I have to agree with this statement.  There are several recommendations that have not been implemented by all levels of government.  The most challenging is access to education; there are still First Nation communities across the country that can’t provide adequate education that uses First Peoples education principles. The Assembly of First Nations (2010), also reports on successes including the number of on-reserve pre-K and K-12 schools administering programs and services to First Nations peoples using land-based pedagogies and the development of several institutes of higher education that use First Nations pedagogies offering a full range of adult education programs to graduate degrees.

I found it interesting that this policy paper was originally written in response to the 1969 White Paper which called for the dissolution of the reserve system and total assimilation of First Nations peoples.  In my opinion, this paper proves that First Nations peoples have been fighting assimilation and lobbying the government with well thought out research to preserve their culture for over five decades.

Identifying A Question and Explaining the Search Terms

As I started my research, I was looking for a document that provided a framework for the development and implementation for First Nation learners and that addressed key elements of First Nation education frameworks such as language immersion and the use of holistic and cultural curriculum.

I used the following search terms:

• Indian
• Indigenous
• Aboriginal
• First Nations
• Native
• Education Framework

From these terms several research papers appeared and I started to skim through them and their bibliographies.  In one of the first research papers I reviewed, I found First Nation Control of First Nation Education policy paper listed in the bibliography.  I was drawn to the year the paper was published and the title of the paper, as I thought it would provide the broader information that I was looking for.

Identifying A New Question

As I reviewed the original, and then reprinted, paper I thought about the following question.

How do indigenous people envision education that integrates indigenous pedagogy?

The Results

The results of my search are below:

Indigenous people have been educating themselves, and their communities since the beginning of time.  They had a natural education system, that started at birth and continued on through one’s lifetime.  Youth and individuals were educated by their elders and community members and education was rooted in culture, contributed to the prosperity of the community, and included communication through language.  Further teachings were spiritual in the forms of dreams, visions, and ceremony.  They have been clear on the education frameworks required to satisfy their learning needs since 1973, yet they are still trying to work with governments to set up an education system that will contribute to their community and will help preserve their language and culture for future generations.

References

Assembly of First Nations. (2010). First Nations Report on First Nations Education. https://www.afn.ca/uploads/files/education/3._2010_july_afn_first_nations_control_of_first_nations_education_final_eng.pdf

National Indian Brothership. (1972). Indian Control of Indian Education. https://oneca.com/IndianControlofIndianEducation.pdf