Introduction:

As stated quite clearly in previous posts, fresh water on Earth is bar none the most precious of its resources.  Fresh water is not only vital to humans for consumption and biological means (i.e. agriculture), but it is centrefold in almost every economic activity.  From manufacturing, to oil extraction (i.e. tar sands), water is a keystone ingredient.  Given the relatively limited supply of fresh water on earth (compared to salt water), it is no surprise that the governance of fresh water is vastly complicated.  More specifically, when we look at eutrophication and water quality in the Great Lakes, we see that water governance becomes even more complex for a number of reasons.  To heighten the importance of this issue, it should be clearly noted that the Great Lakes hold a significant percentage of the Earth’s fresh water supply (Environment Canada, 2015).  Firstly, the Great Lakes are situated between two national borders (Canada and U.S.A.), and therefore pose a “cross national” policy complication.  In other words, the governing bodies of fresh water in Canada and the United States should need to synchronize their combative efforts against hyper-eutrophication and toxic contamination.  To complicate things further, this challenge of governance is not simply one of water, but also one of agricultural practices.  However, for the purposes of this paper, the scope of decision makers will be restricted to ones that address the issue holistically and not ones that address specific components.

From a Canadian perspective, Environment Canada is by and large the most powerful decision maker and actor in the Great Lakes conservation project.  Environment Canada is a key figurehead of coordination and decision making in regards to Great Lakes conservation, and are also involved in the execution of said policies (Environment Canada, 2015).  Along with Environment Canada, the Provincial Government of Ontario has taken great action in the water quality conservation of the Great Lakes by establishing Source Protection Committees under the Clean Water Act of 2006 (Hania, 2013).  Moreover, Environment Canada has initialized agreements, policies, and acts in conjunction with the Province of Ontario and the Federal Government of the United States such as the Canada-US Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement (Environment Canada, 2015).

Framework:

While there are many policies and agreements in effect regarding Great Lakes water quality, the most prominent of which is the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement (GLWQA).  The GLWQA could be most aptly characterized as a binational agreement between the United State’s and Canadian Federal Governments aimed at preserving the quality of water in the Great Lakes (Krantzberg, 2007).  The agreement was signed in 1972 by Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau and United States President Richard Nixon (Krantzberg, 2007).  One of the primary “process goals” of the agreement is to prevent as many chemical contaminants from entering the ecosystems as possible.  The most important of these, are farming chemicals such as fertilizers, causing hyper-eutrophication, and pesticides.  It should be noted, however, that this agreement has been under constant review and scrutiny through the years.  Prior to 2012 (the most recent year it was updated), the GLWQA had only undergone 1 revision in 1987.  Therefore, many environmentalists saw that the agreement was not up to date, and did not address all of the current issues at hand (Bails et al, 2005).  Nevertheless, the GLWQA did undergo a revision in 2012 (to 10 different Annex’) that extended its reach and effect on the Great Lakes area (Environment Canada, 2015).  The different Annex’ cover the varying threats to water quality in the Great Lakes.  For example, Annex 3 addresses chemical pollution, Annex 4 addresses nutrient runoff, Annex 6 addresses aquatic invasive species, and so on.  Each Annex describes how the two entities mutually identify problem areas, how they can promote alternative techniques, produce new mandates, and monitor the results (Environment Canada, 2015).

Under the GLWQA, the Federal Government of Canada initiated the Canadian Federal Great Lakes Program (CFGLP) in 1989 (Environment Canada, 2014).  This is a program launched to promote and uphold the responsibilities of Canada in the GLWQA.  This initiative is important to our case study as it truly encompasses the the process in which one national body can combat a severe “wicked problem.”  The CFGLP does this primarily because of its integration of many different federal sectors such as the Departments of Agriculture, Fisheries, Health, Parks etc.  In other words, the need for the involvement of 8 separate Federal Departments to combat one issue, could be the best definition of a wicked problem that one could ever find.  This program therefore entails an immense amount of cooperation between these entities to evaluate the situation and hand, and enact policies that (ideally) tackle issue without harming other systems.

Some smaller agreements have also been established in Canada and the United States, such as Lakewide Management Plans and the Canada-Ontario Agreement on Great Lakes Water Quality and Ecosystem Health.  Another major player (albeit outside the scope of this paper) is the International Joint Commission (IJC).  All of the programs and agreements require a high degree of cooperation between governing bodies, as the issue at hand is truly “wicked” in nature.  Moreover, it is abundantly clear that the main decision makers in an issue of this magnitude are government bodies that are advised by their many federal departments.

Practices:

For this particular wicked problem, a high degree of scientific literacy is required by almost all governance parties.  This is the case, because assessing water quality, biodiversity, and contaminant levels (etc.), requires a lot of measurement and data collection.  Therefore, the initiatives are highly reliant on data reporting, and even more importantly, accurate data reporting.

With Environment Canada being a clear cut leader in Great Lakes water quality protection, it is surely the body of governance that is most critiqued by all.  From a standpoint of transparency, Environment Canada makes its objective(s) very clear and accessible to all who wish to study the matter.  The several Annex’ of the GLWQA are explained in detail and outline exactly what issues the specific Annex is targeting.  With that being said, Environment Canada falls short in making its exactly policies transparent.  In other words, Environment Canada clearly defines what they want to fix, but does not go into any detail about how they want to do it.  Therefore, it requires much more digging through other literature to find the details on policy reform regarding water quality.  Participation is an interesting area of governance for Environment Canada and its partnering entities.  Since the parties of governance for this issue are almost entirely elected (or appointed by those elected), it could be said that participation of the public is very strong, albeit indirect.  It should be noted, however, that policies brought forward by the governing bodies of the Great Lakes systems have been met with much resistance from certain communities (Forster, 2000).  The most prominent of these communities, is one of agriculture.  This political tension in the region suggests that the governing bodies are, to this point, unable to find solutions that fit everybody’s needs.  Once again, we see a textbook complication of a wicked problem.  The notion of accountability for Environment Canada is, in essence, unavoidable.  Since it is such a public leader, it would be impossible for it to defer blame and accountability.  This is especially true, because of how Environment Canada and other Federal Institutions insist that all decisions and reporting are done cooperatively.  Therefore, there is no one to defer accountability to other than oneself (Environment Canada, 2013).

Conclusions:

It has been well established that the issue of water quality, and its governance, in the Great Lakes is a true wicked problem.  Therefore, the governance of such an issue is impossible to do perfectly.  The biggest example of this, is the resistance seen from the agricultural community against policies mandating certain eco-friendly farming techniques (Forster, 2000).  With that being said, the way that Environment Canada and its partnered entities are governing this issue is well within the scope of expected effectiveness and fairness.

References:

Bails, J., Beeton, A., Bulkley, J., DePhilip, M., Gannon, J., Murray, M., Regier, H., and Scavia, D.   2005. Prescription for the Great Lakes. http://www.miseagrant.umich.        edu/downloads/habitat/PrescriptionforGreatLakes.pdf.

What is the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement? (2013, July 12). Retrieved from        https://www.ec.gc.ca/grandslacs-greatlakes/

Canadian Federal Great Lakes Program. (2014, December 19). Retrieved from     https://www.ec.gc.ca/grandslacs-greatlakes/default.asp?lang=En&n=B390F88B-1

Forster, L. (2000). Public Policies and Private Decisions: Their Impacts on  Lake Erie Water          Quality and Farm Economy. Journal of Soil and Water  Conservation, 55(3), 309-322.

Krantzberg, G. (2007). The Ongoing Review of the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement.          International Association for Great Lakes Research, 33(3), 699-703.

Hania, P. (2013). Uncharted Waters: Applying the Lens of New Governance Theory to the           Practice of Water Source Protection in Ontario. Journal of Environmental Law and     Practice, 24(2).

Case Study 12: Murky Waters

Nathan Ollis (30365134)

Geography 310 Assignment 2 – October 13^th 2015

Now that a holistic overview of this “wicked problem” has been established, it is time to delve into the complexities of certain subcomponents.  As defined earlier, a “wicked problem” is an issue comprised of many different pieces that often contradict each other, thus the complex nature of the issue.  For this post, I will be addressing the economic impact that eutrophication in the Great Lakes has on the surrounding area.  This will include the economic effect on farmers, government bodies, and the general population.  More specifically, I will examine the following question: How does policy reform regarding eutrophication and farming in the Great Lakes affect the economic performance and wellbeing of stakeholders? (Note: Stakeholders include farmers, government bodies/agencies, households, and other businesses etc.)

The following is an Annotated Bibliography of a variety of sources discussing this issue.  The sources selected are articles that directly and/or indirectly address the above question in some magnitude.

Forster, L., Smith, E., & Hite, D. (2000). A Bioeconomic Model of Farm    Management Practices and Environmental Effluents in the Western  Lake Erie Basin.      Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 55(2), 177   182.

This academic journal article written by Dr. Lynn Forster from Ohio State University is particularly useful for this research, as it almost directly addresses the most prevalent questions in this topic.  The paper describes research conducted with a “Bioeconomic” model that is used to predict/simulate the economic impacts of different, more environmentally sensitive, farming techniques.  The model has two components, and both require large quantities of data that describe initial biophysical conditions (hydrology, soil, erosion, nutrient cycling, etc.) of the farming region being observed.  The first is called the Erosion Productivity Impact Calculator (EPIC), and the second is a Farm Level Integer Programming Model (Forster et al, 2000).  Ultimately, the model is used to simulate the effects that new farming regulations (such as fertilizer reduction and tillage change), will have on production, profit margins, effluent discharge, growth rates, farm size, and total environmental impact (Forster et al, 2000).  This article examines, in detail, almost precisely the same question I have highlighted above, and therefore can’t be ignored.  The authors are trying to predict the economic impact of alternative farming techniques in exactly the same location covered in this case study.  Based on their mathematical model, they find that a change to “conservation tillage technologies” will increase long term productivity, and decrease effluent discharge by controlling erosion rates.

The Bioeconomic model used in this study is conceptually brilliant, and targets the issue at hand very well.  However, the article does not explain in any detail as to how the algorithms were derived and how the model actually “works.”  It should also be noted, however, that a proper explanation of a model of this complexity would be too complicated for almost any reader.  Given the complicated nature of economic simulation, it was still an effective and appropriate model for the research.  Moreover, the paper does a fantastic job of outlining its central research question and conducting a fair study with tangible results and conclusions.  Without any more detail, it is difficult to critically evaluate the actual accuracy of the simulation model.

Forster, L. (2000). Public Policies and Private Decisions: Their Impacts on       Lake Erie Water Quality and Farm Economy. Journal of Soil and Water   Conservation, 55(3), 309-322.

            It should firstly be acknowledged that this paper is from the same year, and written by the same author as the above reference.  Dr. Lynn Forster of Ohio State University has done some excellent research on this issue and aims to answer some of the very same questions I am now.  Therefore, his research cannot be ignored as it provides vital data and information regarding the economic impacts of this phenomena.  Unlike the above reference, this paper looks into the effectiveness of past policy reforms aimed at neutralizing eutrophication in the Great Lakes.  To do this, Forster compiles pre existing data from before and after new method incentives and adoptions.  He then compares this data, and draws his conclusions primarily from there.  His EPIC (Erosion Productivity Impact Calculator), is discussed briefly at the end of the paper, but is not the central method used to draw conclusions.

Freedman, B. (1989). Environmental Ecology: The Impacts on Pollution and        Other Stresses on Ecosystem Structure and Function. San Diego,     California: Academic Press.

            A Section of Bill Freedman’s book (pp 171-176) analyzes the scientific ramifications of eutrophication in Lake Erie.  He delves into the biological implications that phytoplankton and toxin accumulation have on the lake itself.  This is an important aspect to my research also, as this research allows for a stronger, more holistic understanding of the issue.  Also of great appeal, Freedman discusses the strong economic productivity of Lake Erie itself (via its Fishing Industry) and the agricultural output of the surrounding land.  Freedman draws on previous studies to report the most pressing matters of this wicked problem, water quality.  Without this kind of information, it would be difficult to formulate a well informed opinion and comment on the economic concerns of the issue.  An issue with this source is the fact that its information is dated.  Being 26 years past the publication of this book, the data should be used with caution, as much of the data fluctuates over time.  Therefore, this information may not be ideal for the purposes of this study in 2015.  However, the more “historical” data is still useful for baseline purposes, and should not be ignored entirely.

Gallucci, M. (2014, August 16). Lake Erie Algae Bloom Crisis Is Putting   Pressure On Ohio, Farm States To Tackle Agricultural Pollution       Problems. International Business Times. Retrieved from      http://www.ibtimes.com/lake-erie-algae-bloom-crisis-putting           pressure-ohio-farm-states-tackle-agricultural-1660240

            This article published in the International Business Times in 2014 focuses primarily on the social implications that high eutrophication has on the farming community around the Great Lakes.  Gallucci reports the immense social pressure farmers are beginning to feel as a result of poor water quality for yet another summer in Lake Erie.  Once again, residents of towns and communities around Lake Erie are resorting to using bottled water for almost all household duties (especially for drinking).  The article also discusses some general details regarding the policy debate between government agencies and the primary vectors of eutrophication, industrial farmers.  The farming community surrounding Lake Erie is meeting policy reform with great resistance because they feel that alternative farming practices will impose substantial costs on their businesses.  It should be noted, however, that many farmers in the area have in fact converted to more conservation based practices.  This suggests that either the costs of the new practices are not as high as the farmers claim, or that the farmers are being subsidized by government agencies to convert.  This article is helpful for my study because it, unlike my other sources, spends a great deal of its time discussing the external (and internal) pressures being placed on farmers. 

Richards, P., Calhoun, F., & Matisoff, G. (2002). The Lake Erie Agricultural        Systems for Environmental Quality Project: An Introduction. Journal of     Environmental Quality, 31, 6-16.

This piece by Peter Richards et al (2002), focuses on explaining the inception and goals of the Lake Erie Agricultural Systems for Environmental Quality Project (LEASEQ).  Even though this particular paper is just an introduction to the history and effectiveness of LEASEQ, it still provides specific enough information for the purposes of this study.  Its significance lies in its ability to solidify the conceptual framework already discusses in entry 1.  The paper outlines a brief, but effective, timeline of the combative efforts taken against eutrophication in Lake Erie’s West Basin.  Moreover, it briefly discusses the relative effectiveness of those techniques (Richards et al, 2002).  This introductory piece spends the bulk of its contents describing the natural specifications of the area itself, such as soil, geology, drainage, and previous land use (Richards et al, 2002), which only solidifies its stance as a frame working piece only.  The information presented is key to my research as it assists with the establishment of geographic and historical context for the area under consideration.  Understanding the initial conditions of Lake Erie’s geography is undoubtedly vital to a holistic understanding of the wicked problem at hand, because these initial conditions could play a huge role in the effectiveness of alternative farming techniques.  From a critical standpoint, the article does not present any clear-cut conclusions (which is understandable because its an introduction paper).  However, it would have been beneficial to the reader if the authors had presented some critical claims regarding the issue at hand.

Statistics Canada. (n.d.). Farm Financial Statistics. Statistics Canada:        Agriculture. Retrieved from http://www5.statcan.gc.ca/subject        sujet/result  resultat?pid=920&id=3953&lang=eng&type=CST&pageNum=1&more=

            Most of the scholarly data I have found is data coming from the United States.  Therefore, in order to bring forth information from North of the US border, I will draw on information from Stats Canada.  Using Stats Canada, I will be able to research raw data from a reliable source and draw conclusions based on this information.  Luckily, Stats Canada contains a section outlining agricultural productivity and financial information.  Therefore, I can cross reference output and financial data from year to year and draw conclusions based on the fluctuations.  For instance, it can be observed that farm output has been increasing steadily in the province of Ontario (Great Lakes Region), and has been more stagnant in other provinces.

Thornton, J., Harding, W., & Dent, M. (2013). Eutrophication as a “wicked”        Problem. Lakes and Reservoirs: Research and Management, 18(1), 298   316.   

This article is key in my research because it does an excellent job of explaining the vast complexities of this particular wicked problem in far more detail than I would ever be able to.  It compartmentalizes the “wickedness” of this environmental issue and describes how each compartment is linked to the others.  In fact, the ultimate goal of this article is to simply define global eutrophication in fresh water systems as a wicked problem.  Therefore, the paper is essential, as it aids in constructing a solid conceptual framework.  Given the conceptual nature of the paper, it is not particularly focused on generating its own data through original research methods.  It draws from a variety of other academic texts and journals in order to support and contextualize their definition of eutrophication as a wicked problem.  Therefore, the reliability of this reference is difficult to question, as it synthesizes an already well researched issue.

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. (2010). Five Years of Data          Sheds Light on Status of Conservation Tillage.            http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/oh/technical/land  se/cropland/?cid=nrcs144p2_029581

            This raw data source from the United States Department of Agriculture provides some significant information on this research topic from a relatively recent study.  The USDA conducted a survey from 2006-2010, collecting data regarding tillage type used and crop type/growth in the Lake Erie West Basin region.   This study was conducted to monitor the change in tillage and crop use through this time period as different incentives and policies were put into place.  Monitoring this data over a long term period such as this gives a great deal of accuracy as to what the real changes are in the data set.  This direct sourcing method of “real” data provides a certain level of validity to the research, and shows exactly how many alternative farming techniques are being implemented.  Therefore, we can draw conclusions about the overall effectiveness of the policy reforms, and can suggest new ones if needed.  The data was collected physically by researchers visiting the farm sites and recording tillage type, and crop type.  This research method is ideal for this situation because it prevents the data from being lost in translation through middle men and/or technological malfunctions.  Surprisingly, this study concluded that between the years 2006 and 2010, there was no observed trend in conservation trend usage.  Simply put, the rates of conservation tillage fluctuated in only minor quantities, and showed no real trend of growth or recession (USDA, 2010).

Without question, the most valuable natural resource on planet earth is fresh water (period!). Regardless of the immense importance of fossil fuels for the world economy, or the monetary value of minerals like gold, water is king. It can be strongly argued that “water wars” are in the somewhat near future, as former United Nations Secretary General Boutros Boutros Ghali remarked “The next war in the middle east with be over water, not politics” (1985).

This four-part project will be examining the case study of immense algae blooms in the Great Lakes, and how these blooms impact a plethora of biological, economic, and social factors. A problem of this level of complexity can be aptly characterized as a “Wicked Problem.” For simplicity’s sake, I will define an Environmental Wicked Problem as an issue with no single, simplistic solution. It is an issue that is deeply rooted in several sectors, is surrounded by scientific uncertainty, and contains a great amount of disagreement (Balint et al, 2011). With this in mind, the problem of current water quality in the Great Lakes is certainly “wicked,” and the rest of this entry will delve into exactly why.

Firstly, I will return to the notion of water’s importance to everyday human life. In the past, large algae blooms in the Great Lakes have actually caused toxic contamination of household water supply. In 2014, approximately 400 000 people living around Lake Erie’s west basin were left without safe water for 3 days (Roelofs, 2015). In addition, algae blooms of this magnitude deprive areas of oxygen and reduce biodiversity. It turns out, that the primary cause of the algae explosion in the last half-decade is a result of increased phosphate use by industrial farmers. Farmers apply phosphorous rich fertilizers to almost all of their crops to enhance their growth speed, size, and aesthetics. The issue here, is that a huge proportion of these phosphates are being poured into rivers, tributaries, and the Great Lakes themselves, through runoff during times of heavy rainfall (Snider, 2015). At first, this may appear to have a simple solution; just regulate the quantity of fertilizer that farmers are allowed to use, and the algae will not bloom. Wrong! Regulating fertilizer use is extremely complicated, and to this point, all attempts to do so have failed (Roelofs, 2015). Moreover, farming regulations in this case would need to cross a national boundary to full effectiveness, as the great lakes are surrounded by both Canada and the United States. Even if a policy reform was to be implemented, and it successfully reduced phosphate runoff and increased water quality, we would not be free and clear. A reduction in fertilizer use would likely decrease agricultural production, and the total yield of industrial farming in these areas. This result is obviously undesirable for the farming industry, and thus the great resistance for phosphate regulations. Another component of this Wicked Problem is one of climate change. An uncontrollable variable at this point, increased rainfall over the past half decade is a substantial contributor to phosphate runoff and algae growth. In order for the phosphorous to get into Great Lakes, it needs water, lots of water (Snider, 2015). How can we simply blame the farming industry when the farmers are not the primary vectors of phosphate runoff? Moreover, it is extremely difficult to suppress economic (especially food) output in lieu of environmental turmoil due to the sheer financial and political power of such organizations.

In conclusion, the water quality issue arising in the Great Lakes is a textbook Wicked Problem, as it contains many interconnected elements with a domino like effect.

Mind Map:

Now for my lovely Mind Map. Here I have the phenomenon under examination in the centre of the mind map. Protruding from the centre, I have connected the direct effects that excessive algae growth has (Biological, Economic, etc.). The ultimate effect that calls for action in my Mind Map is the “Danger to Humans.” Once clean water supply is jeopardized, humans seek to change that outcome through policy reform. It is this policy reform, that sets off a complicated reaction of cause and effect in the Mind Map. For example, calling for a reduction in phosphate use decreases agricultural productivity, which effects employment, etc. Another key component of the Mind Map, located at the top, is the Climate Change element. This uncontrollable (for the short term anyways) facet is, while easy to understand, is centerfold in the complication of the mind map. Without the excessive rainfall, the immense algae blooms would be minimal if present at all (Roelofs, 2011). The top left corner contains the economic portion of output and employment, and how policy changes to farmers can ultimately filter down to the financial well being of many people.

References:

Balint, P., Stewart, R., & Desai, A. (2011). Wicked Environmental Problems: Managing            Uncertainty and Conflict (pp. 1-21). Island Press.

Roelofs, T. (2015, August 4). Algae bloom, the sequel, spells big trouble for Lake            Erie. Bridge. http://bridgemi.com/2015/08/algae-bloom-the-sequel-spells-big-trouble-for-lake-erie/

Snider, James. “How to Tackle Lake Erie’s Algae Problem.” Huffington Post 3 Sept.            2015. Print. http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/wwfcanada/lake-erie-algae_b_8079422.html

Assignment 1 Mind Map