Coral reefs the most diverse and complex ecosystems within the ocean (Yonover, 2015). They support 25 per cent of all marine life, home to more than one million animal and plant species and over 800 corals species (Yonover, 2015). Coral reefs are an invaluable asset on earth; providing goods and services that could never be produced by man. Since settlement around the world, people have posed the greatest threat to coral reefs, but nothing in comparison to the pressures that the 21st century is bringing. Coral reefs are degrading at a rate never measured before. This rapid decline is said to be mainly due to human induced global warming and ocean acidification, and is leading to the irreversible decline of 70% of the world’s reefs (Dubinsky, 2010).
This essay will address how coral degradation became an issue and how it is measured, and then discuss what affect reef degradation will have on society-environment relationships in the future and what rules and regulations are in place to stop it. The Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response model will provide a framework to this essay and will help to further describe the interactions between society and the environment, by including the drivers, pressures, states and impacts (Kristensen, 2004). For a more focused understanding of coral reef degradation, this essay will primarily focus on a case study of The Great Barrier Reef.
The history of the Great Barrier Reef
The Great Barrier Reef began formation approximately 17 million years ago, when the continental shelf of eastern Australia became consolidated (Bowen & Bowen, 2002). This caused the formation of the substrate whereby extensive coral could then begin to grow (Bowen & Bowen, 2002). The Great Barrier Reef is now the largest living structure in the world, and is the only living structure visible from space (Bowen & Bowen, 2002). The reef stretches 2000 kilometres along the North East coast of Australia and is home to 2900 separate coral reefs and 9000 different species of marine life (Bowen & Bowen, 2002). Since it’s formation, the Great Barrier Reef has expanded and contracted due to a variety of extrinsic factors such as sea level and climatic changes (Dubinsky, 2010). As mankind has evolved however, coral reefs have become increasingly exposed to anthropogenic stressors on top of these already persistent natural events (Dubinsky, 2010).
What is causing coral reef degradation?
The UN states that, ‘climate change is causing widespread die-off of coral reefs through rising temperatures, ocean acidification and an increase in extreme weather,’ (UNEP, 2012). Since 1979 the reef has suffered eight mass coral bleaching events and by 2030 coral bleaching events are expected to occur annually (IPCC, 2007). Bleaching episodes have resulted in catastrophic loss of coral cover, and have changed coral community structure, and resulted in a potentially critical influence on the maintenance of biodiversity (IPCC, 2007). Recovery from coral bleaching takes at least 10 years, however as the frequency of these bleaching events are increasing, scientists are predicting that non-nourishing algae could take over the Great Barrier Reef by 2050 (IPCC, 2007).
As well as this, The Great Barrier Reef supports a fishing industry that brings income for Queensland coastal communities and the Queensland seafood industry (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, 2016). In tandem with climate change, the fishing industry is significantly impacting the reef. Out of the 133 local, regional and global extinctions or marine species documented worldwide over the last 200 years, 55% were caused by overexploitation, while the remained were driven by habitat loss and other threats (UNEP, 2012). Not only is this overfishing decreasing natural biodiversity, it is also turning coral communities into algal-dominated systems because the herbivores are being overfished (UNEP, 2012).
Coral reef degradation in the Great Barrier Reef is also being caused by invasive species. The biggest threat to native corals is the crown-of-thorns starfish as it preys upon coral polyps (UNEP, 2012). The density of the crown-of-thorns starfish is increasing to a point where the starfish consumes coral tissue faster than the corals can grow, resulting in an overall decline in coral cover (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, 2016).
Pesticides and fertilizer from the agriculture and urban areas that occupy the shoreline are another reason for coral reef degradation. It harms biodiversity directly through mortality and reduced reproductive success, and also indirectly through habitat degradation (UNEP, 2012).
The tourism industry on the Great Barrier Reef is important to Australia’s economy, with over 1.9 million tourist visitor days in 2013 and $5.2 billion dollars to the Australian economy annually (McNamara & Piggortt-McKella, 2016). This scale of human presence on the reef is putting significant stress on the reef. In order to support these tourists, boats are needed, water activities are available daily and onshore development is continuously needed to accommodate these tourists (McNamara & Piggortt-McKella, 2016).
In relation to the DPSIR framework, it begins with the primary and secondary driving forces. In relation to the Great Barrier Reef, these could include the human needs for shelter, food, mobility and entertainment (Kristensen, 2004). In order to meet these needs, or driving forces, human activities such as tourism, food production, construction and fishing take place (Kristensen, 2004). As proven previously however, these human activities are exerting pressure on the environment. As a result of these pressures, the state of the environment is affected (Kristensen, 2004). It is vital therefore, for the Great Barrier Reef to continually measure the state of environmental compartments like air, water and soil in order to track how they are being affected from these pressures.
Measuring coral reef degradation
There are multiple ways in which coral reef degradation is measured. Firstly, meta-analysis is a method designed to quantitatively summarize research findings across studies (Cote, Gill, Gardner, & Watkinson 2005). Meta analysis is commonly used to track changes occurring on coral reefs worldwide and is also a valuable tool in conservation research (Cote, Gill, Gardner, & Watkinson 2005). Meta-analysis is used to measure changes in coral cover, area of the reef and biodiversity on over 103 Great Barrier Reef islands (Hamylton, 2015). The results from different studies are summarised and compared which enables a greater understanding of the state of the reef and if and how it has changed (Hamylton, 2015).
Measuring and monitoring the physical environment of coral reefs also helps to manage and determine the cause of reef degradation or recovery (Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2004). The measurements taken include water temperature, salinity, visibility, sediment and so forth. The Australian government takes these measurements and forms an annual report card, which tracks the progress towards the goals and targets for the reef (Queensland Government, 2015). The information in these reports determines the success of the reef plan and identifies what further measures need to be taken to address coral and water quality in the Great Barrier Reef (Queensland Government, 2015).
Indicators such as species distribution, species composition and levels of coral bleaching are used to gage how the coral reefs have changed and by how much. This baseline research is taken in highly protected zones, which are very important areas of the reef where biodiversity is protected, and sustainability is increased. As a result of this however, these sections of the reef do not give the truest depiction of the state of the reef as they are protected against fishing, tourists and ships.
These measurements are vital for understanding the changes in the state of the reef, which then leads to the next phase of the DPSIR model; impacts. The changes in the physical, chemical or biological state of the environment ‘impacts’ the quality of ecosystems and also the welfare of human beings (Kristensen, 2004). Therefore, it is important to understand the ‘impact’ of a changing coral reef might have on society-environment relationships in the future.
Coral reef degradation and its affect on society-environment relationships in the future
Currently, humans have a very complex and ingrained relationship with the Great Barrier Reef. The reefs pure beauty brings millions of tourists annually, which in turn brings increased development along the shoreline. Additionally the reef has an abundance of fish and therefore formed a great base for a fishing industry, which now provides food to locals markets and international markets. Furthermore, as the reef is located all along the North East Coast of the continent, it provides 25% of international shipping routes. A significant proportion of the Australian economy is fuelled by the invaluable biodiversity and goods and services the Great Barrier Reef supplies (Cote, Gill, Gardner, & Watkinson, 2005).
As discussed throughout this essay however, the human-reef relationship is becoming drastically unbalanced. These human activities are overexploiting the reef too heavily and too frequently that the quality, beauty and resources of the reef are depleting. This, in tandem with worldwide climate change and invasive species such as the crown-of-thorns starfish, are all apart of the grave concerns for the future of the reef. Whilst the reef is depleting, there are also concerns for the future of the individuals, businesses and Australian economy that rely on the reefs resources.
As there is such a deep and complex society-environment relationship between humans and the Great Barrier Reef, cutting access to the reefs resources could be seriously detrimental to the Australian economy and livelihoods of many. Therefore, instead of uprooting this complex relationship, different policy, regimes and management systems need to be implemented that will adjust and rework this society-environment relationship into a more sustainable one. This society-environment relationship does not just encompass ‘Australian society,’ but participation from across the globe. Global warming is the single biggest threat the coral reef degradation and is caused by all nations. Therefore, unless the nations of the world are able to control global warming and sea level rise, by next century there may well not be a living reef at all (Bowen & Bowen, 2002). In relation to the DPSIR model, Australia has started to implement ‘responses’ to these ‘impacts’. These responses can affect any part of the chain between driving forces and impacts (Kristensen, 2004).
Responses
According to McNamara & Piggortt-McKella ‘The significance of these threats and associated lag time before threats are actually felt in the region, coupled with the sheer size of the region, make it more difficult to protect and manage the GBR, (2016). In particularly, the impacts of global climate change will be the most difficult to address, as these require international cooperation at unprecedented levels of commitment and sacrifices by the present generation to insure that resources exist (Dubinsky, 2010). Monitoring, research, and restoration all are essential to safeguard coral reefs; however, to ultimately protect coral reefs, strong legal mechanisms are necessary (Bowen & Bowen, 2002). The Australian government, in partnership with other organisations have implemented policy measures, technologies and programs to help stop coral reef degradation.
The Australian government department of environment and energy has created the Reef 2050 Long-Term Sustainability Plan. Based on the best available scientific research, it is a partnership approach involving governments, scientists, Traditional Owners, community and industry (Australian Government, 2015). Within this plan there are integrated monitoring and reporting projects, reef trusts and other specific plans such as the water quality protection plan that work towards the common goal of improving the state of the Great Barrier Reef, now and it in the future (Australian Government, 2015). The government has doubled funding to control crown-of-thorns starfish to further protect the Reef’s corals (Australian Government, 2015). As well as this, over the coming decade the Queensland Government projected 2 billion dollars in reef management and research; of which $100 million goes towards improving water quality and reducing the impacts of fishing annually (Australian Government, 2015).
Watershed discharges have been documented to reach reefs over 100 km from shore on the Great Barrier Reef of Australia, affecting the key parameters of water quality, and hence, coral degradation (Dubinsky, 2010). As a result, coral reef researchers and managers have been working to reduce land-based pollution as this form of pollution is proven to be one of the most serious sources of stress to the coral reef (Dubinsky, 2010). Farmers and the Australian government came to a mutual agreement for stricter laws around pesticides, chemical use and run off from farmland (Dubinsky, 2010). Another legal mechanism the Australian government implemented involves the establishment of marine protected areas or MPAs. As MPAs have the added force of law behind them, a protected marine enclosure—such as a coral reef system—may stand a better chance for survival (Bowen & Bowen, 2002). Today, 1/3 of the Great Barrier Reef is protected in these marine protected areas.
Conclusion
In 1981 the Great Barrier Reef was listed as a special world heritage area of ‘superlative natural phenomena’ containing ‘formations of exceptional natural beauty [with] superlative examples of the most important ecosystems,’ (Bowen & Bowen, 2002). Currently, the reef is under immense pressure by humans overexploiting its resources, climate change and invasive species. This is ultimately changing the reefs ‘exceptional’ state. These changes in the state of the reef also significantly impact the individuals, businesses and Australian economy overall that relies on the reef. In order to lift these impacts and improve the state of the reef, responses have been implemented. The Australian government, in partnership with countries around the world are working together improve the state of the Great Barrier Reef and building towards a better future.