Healing Across Time: A Personal Journey Through Science and Story
Among the towering rock formations in Page, AZ, I was suffering from a classic case of traveler’s disease. Though I was in awe of the majestic hills and valleys of Bryce Canyon, UT, it was the microscopic enterotoxigenic E. coli that wreaked havoc in the ensuing hours. While not life-threatening, it was certainly unpleasant. This bacterium, first identified in Kolkata, India in 1968, produces diarrhea-inducing peptides that remain stable even at 100ºC. The lesson is clear: be vigilant about what you eat while traveling.
Traditional Healing Across Indigenous Peoples
As a visitor of the Diné Nation, I got to see Tsé Bíghanílíní (Antelope Canyon) that is sacred to them with our knowledgeable Indigenous tour guide. Regretfully I did not have a chance to know her name. She told us, Tsé Bíghanílíní means “the place where water runs through rocks” in Navajo. Its deep layered crevices serve as natural shelter for cooling food supplies and herding livestock away from the arid desert sun, which can reach up to 40°C (104°F). Indigenous wisdom also examined medicinal plants for digestive relief. The Pillager Ojibwas and Mohegans brewed teas from doodooshaaboojiibik leaves (Dandelion, Taraxacum officinale) to ease digestion and treat kidney and skin conditions. The Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) people found that extracts from teionerahtastaráthe (Broadleaf Plantain, Plantago major), an invasive plant introduced by European settlers, could relieve burns, cuts, stomach pain, and diarrhea. This shows the rich history and adaptability of herbal medicine in Indigenous ways of healing.
Scurvy, Salicin, and Science: the Legacy of Indigenous Healing
I can’t help but imagine settlers traveling long distances to foreign lands, experiencing all sorts of ailments and searching for local remedies. In the freezing winter of 1536, French explorer Jacques Cartier and his crew suffered from scurvy. Several men were cured by an evergreen leaf and bark extract that Cartier learned about from the very Haudenosaunee people. While the specific tree remains unknown, pine needles contain vitamin C (ascorbic acid) the deficiency of which causes scurvy. This represents one of the first documented uses of Indigenous medicine in North America. In separate accounts, local people chewed white willow (salix alba) bark to relieve pain and fever. Later technological advances enabled large-scale extraction of salicin from the plant, though it caused stomach irritation as a side effect. Salicin proved to be a prodrug, requiring metabolic processing to produce its active ingredient, salicylate. The acetylated version, acetylsalicylic acid, was marketed as Aspirin by the Bayer company in 1898 as a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID). These Indigenous reports support findings of contemporary science.
Final Relief from $1.99 of Bismuth
Fourteen agonizing hours later, I managed to visit a chain pharmacy. For USD 1.99, 40 tablets of over-the-counter bismuth subsalicylate quite literally saved my backside. The drug works by breaking down (hydrolysis) into its component parts in stomach acid. The salicylate then relieves pain, as mentioned above. But of all elements on Earth… bismuth? This peculiar element, when combined with biomolecules, forms organobismuth compounds by reacting with amines and thiols from peptides. These compounds inhibit the growth of bacteria involved in gastrointestinal disorders and reduce bacterial binding to digestive tracts. Thankfully we live in an era where commercial bismuth mining is viable, organic synthesis of salicylic acid is available, good manufacturing practices of colloidal drugs are safe, and the causes (etiology) of traveller’s diarrhea is well understood. Cartier had none of that in 1536. In fact, Robert Hooke only first observed microscopic life in 1736, Ludwig van Beethoven composed Moonlight Sonata in 1802, and John Dalton proposed the atomic theory in 1804. From a historical perspective, having over-the-counter drugs that is effective available down the street, is an achievement of humanity.
Why do I do what I do
From ancient alchemists to contemporary medicinal chemists, improving human health has been a timeless, universal pursuit. Modern medicinal chemistry interrogates molecular structures for therapeutic effectiveness and synthesizes new compounds in search of better clinical outcomes—just as Bayer did with aspirin, and what Bismuth subsalicylate did for me. I hope, one day in the future, cancer care is also this accessible, affordable, and available, to all.
Important note
The author received verbal consent from the tour guide on May 7, 2025, to share her story. Other Indigenous accounts and scientific information are cited in-text to the best of the author’s ability. All medicinal content is provided for informational purposes only; please consult a qualified healthcare professional for medical advice.