“I was in love with Harlem long before I got there.”–Langston Hughes, critically renowned Harlem writer

 At the turn of the century America saw an mass relocation of previously southern-   based African Americans to northern cities from 1910 until the 1920s. Affordable housing and new job opportunities in the city after World War I were two factors contributing to the influx of African-Americans. This movement was referred to as the Great Migration Fortune-seeking blacks from the South seized the demanding wartime economy to migrate north, where socio-economic opportunity and a less vicious racial climate were expected. Popular destinations included New York City, Chicago, Kansas City, St. Louis and Detroit. However, no city in the north captured  the imagination of blacks quite like Harlem did, and an overwhelming majority of blacks flocked to New York City, settling into a section of Upper Manhattan called Harlem. Harlem soon became the “black capital of the Big Apple.” Harlem housed a diverse population of blacks from different socio-economic classes and geographical origins. By 1928, Harlem alone claimed 200,000 black residents (Stewart , 18).

“Harlem….draws immigrants from every country in the world that has a    colored population either large or small. Ambitious and talented colored youth on every continent look forward to reaching Harlem. It is the Mecca for all those who seek Opportunity with a capital O.” —The Saturday Evening Times, August 1925

New York was a city that spoke to “black hopes and dreams” (Stewart, 18). New York City’s reputation as a cosmopolitan hub and launching pad for up-and-coming artists inspired a particular demographic of artistic African-Americans to venture to the Big Apple. With its publishing houses, theatres, galleries and pubs in such a close radius, New York City provided black artists with a unique landscape of venues to hone their crafts that were otherwise not available in other parts of the United States (Dorsey).

With Harlem as a home-base and the rest of the city as a critical backdrop, what became known as the Harlem Renaissance (known as the Negro Renaissance at the time) began to flourish.

125th Street was, and still is, considered the “Main Street” of Harlem

In its broadest terms, the Harlem Renaissance was a social and cultural project of African-American self-identity. The Harlem Renaissance was physically manifested in various artistic and creative outlets, including visual art, literature, dance, theatre and song. The Harlem Renaissance was the first cohesive cultural movement in African-American history (Bernard, 30).

Closely intertwined with the Harlem Renaissance was the New Negro Movement. The two are often paired hand-in-hand, as they both functioned in a symbiotic relationship, bouncing off of each other to keep the other alive. The New Negro Movement is less tangible than the Harlem Renaissance, and thus more difficult to define. The New Negro Movement is perhaps best described as a militant ideology characterized by overt racial pride. The political decentralization of black men and women forced African-Americans to “invent new strategies” to “pivot around American political structures” and gain a sense of inclusion in the nation’s future (Stewart, 17) Since African-Americans had been continuously denied political citizenship, black intellectuals retaliated by inventing a “cultural citizenship that promised a new kind of American identity defined by culture instead of politics” (Stewart, 17). Alain Locke, a Harvard educated black intellectual, coined the term “New Negro” to reflect this new cultural identity, rooted in concepts of self-determination and racial consciousness. The New Negro was not an individual persona, but an ideological construction concerned with the contributions that African-Americans could make to American society. That being said, the New Negro Movement was the ideological makeup behind the artistic aspect of the Harlem Renaissance: the renewed sense of racial pride and encouragement of cultural self-expression helped catalyze the creation of great Harlem works. Locke and black intellectuals like W.E.B. Du Bois popularized the New Negro idea to redefine racial stereotypes that pervaded America, hoping to achieve an end result of cooperative nationalism between both black and white Americans.

Larsen may have flirted with how the New Negro Movement functioned in action in Passing, using her character Clare Kendry as an intermediary between both races. Irene Redfield is seemingly content with her social position in Harlem’s  black bourgeoisie class, but is soon subject to the realities that exist outside of Harlem when she meets Clare’s racist husband in Chicago. While Harlem was shielded from harsh racism due to its geographical location and its tight community of solidarity, it was naive to think that the New Negro Movement was effective in facilitating cooperation between both races on an international level. Larsen was not unreasonable in her pessimism–segregation occurred for another 40 years, until the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s.

Alain Locke, writer of the essay The New Negro, is credited as the founder of the New Negro Movement

Through migration, urbanization and subsequent occupational differentiation, the years between 1890 and 1920 saw the development of new African-American enclaves and new social and economic leadership groups throughout the nation (Fultz, 98). Newly sprouted mass urban markets created new job opportunities, giving rise to a black middle and professional class. According to Fultz, this new middle class and professional group was distinct from the older African-American upper class (those who had established themselves in Northern cities prior to the Great Migration) in terms of their racial philosophies and orientation towards the black community. The new middle class was particularly race-conscious and was concerned with securing their position as leaders of the black community (Fultz, 106).

In 1910-1920, W.E.B. Du Bois ardently campaigned for the need for higher education for blacks. Education was closely related to race, class and status, so it became a source of material pride for the new middle class and professional blacks. It thus became a sort of criteria for the legitimacy of African-American accomplishments both within the black community and to white society; education functioned as an “important basis for status and stratification within the African-American community,” as well as a tangible reiteration of how blacks could “measure up” to the greater white community (Fultz, 105). Education essentially reflected and justified the new middle class’s position as black elite (Fultz, 105).

Aaron Douglas’s painting titled “Song of Towers” was one of many pieces in a collection that he called Aspects of Negro Life. Douglas is known for documenting what critics called “the Negro personality.”

Larsen takes note of the discussion of education, incorporating it as a figment of debate for Irene and Brian. When Irene brings up the fact that she would like to discuss Junior’s schooling with “serious consideration,” Brian clearly belittles the black bourgeoisie preoccupation with education when he remarks that Irene is making a “molly-coddle” of Junior by obsessing over “a little necessary education” (Larsen, 188-189) The conversation ends with Irene expressing to the reader that “a piercing agony of misery” had settled in her heart, and that she felt “willfully misunderstood” (Larsen, 189).

The “Negro Welfare League” that Irene chairs is inferred to be a reference to the National Urban League or also known as the National League on Urban Conditions among Negroes. The nonpartisan organization engaged in “community-based work to secure for African Americans equal access to employment, education, health services, housing, and social services” (Fultz, 107).

Palmer Hayden’s painting titled “A Midsummer Night in Harlem” explores the meaning of community in Harlem.

New York City’s plethora of editors and publishing houses and zeal for literature made it an ideal location for budding black writers. Harlem’s literary renaissance was conceived under these pre-existing conditions, and it became the first significant African-American artistic movement to capture the eye of the broader public.

The Harlem literary movement was never a “cohesive” movement, but rather a product of “overlapping social and intellectual circles” (Hutchinson, 1). Harlem writers each had unique perspectives on the newly sprouted urban landscape and competing visions about the future of the African-American race, but these divergences were all bound together by a desire for racial self-assertion and self-definition in the face of white supremacy.

A central question that clung to the core of the Harlem Renaissance literary movement was how race was to be represented. Fierce debates about how the black man was to be depicted ravaged black literary circles, reinforcing the notion that the literary movement was anything but unified. The general strategies of New Negro writers was to produce literature that appealed to a greater audience (particularly white readers) in hopes that the literature could make a difference in race relations and ideally break down the racial barrier that permeated America during the time. The line of logic that these writers used was that “literary models were common property: intrinsically neither black nor white,” and that black and white Americans could co-exist within the same cultural community (Dorsey). However writers’ idealism was met with issues of interpretation. Since the literary canon was opened up to whites, white Americans took it upon themselves to interpret blackness along the lines of the European literary tradition. This countered the initial goal of carving out their own identity against white visions, beliefs, and stereotypes.

During the height of the Renaissance, Harlem itself became a subject and a theme of popular fiction and poetry of both black and non-black writers. Non-blacks especially milked the opportunity to write about Harlem for commercial success, and many white writers found that their pieces gained best-seller status. Carl Van Vechten’s Nigger Heaven was a critical, yet controversial, success that delved in the seedier side of Harlem by describing sex, alcohol consumption, gambling and other acts that occurred. For nearly a decade, “imaginative literature about black Harlem became inescapable” (De Jongh, 33).

Langston Hughes, pictured above, was a renowned writer of the Harlem Renaissance.

It was no secret that the “roaring twenties” was associated with a sexual revolution throughout the entirety of the United States. New York City not only saw a dramatic shift in urban and racial landscapes after the Great Migration, but an accompanying shift in moral attitudes towards the subject of sexuality. Formerly taboo and covert, promiscuity and sexually-suggestive acts slid to the forefront of entertainment. Speakeasies, bars and dance-halls found ample business and were open all hours of the night. While the police and various conservative societies attempted to suppress the “immoral” sexual activities that were occurring in the streets of New York, Harlem was largely exempt from policing, and sexual liberation became a visible facet of Harlem life. Single black female migrants poured into the city and found jobs as cabaret dancers and singers, providing late-night entertainment for blacks and whites alike. Harlem also saw its fair share of cross-dressers, lesbian couples and explicitly sexual performances (Schwartz, 141). However, the sexualized was not without opposition from the inside. Striving for “racial uplift,” the black bourgeoisie tried to counteract the image of a sexualized Harlem by exerting pressure on the black community,” but their efforts to police the neighbourhood failed (Schwarz, 141). It is important to consider that the Harlem Renaissance was thus born out of an environment where two competing social forces were at play—the conservatism and seriousness of the black bourgeoisie and intellectuals and the sexual radicals that found a place to express themselves in the newly sprouted Harlem metropolis.

“The Harlem Renaissance was surely as gay as it was black.”

-Henry Louis Gates Jr., American literary critic and intellectual

Many Renaissance artists were same-sex interested, but they often hid their sexuality from the public eye. Schwartz writes that secret gay networks were established among some male Renaissance participants in an attempt to shield their sexuality from the “eyes of the black bourgeoisie” (Schwartz, 142). Lesbian artists had a less structured community, as they had to additionally face gender discrimination and family obligations, thus experiencing more “repressive living and writing conditions than their male counterparts” (Schwartz, 142). The black bourgeoisie was particularly skeptical of lesbians, and how their image would stunt the growth of the African-American race. Black women were regarded as the “future of black America,” but lesbians counteracted this role, as they were accused of “rejecting their reproductive role” in society and “corrupting black youth” (Schwartz, 143).

Given the sensitivity regarding black female sexuality, provocative portrayals of female sexuality were scant in most female Renaissance works. Female writers were conscious of the “persistent myth of black women’s lasciviousness,” and treated the subject gently, as to not confirm existing stereotypes. Schwartz also observes that many of the prominent female writers during the Renaissance were “northern bred and belonged to the black bourgeoisie”—and primarily concerned with subduing the sexualized image of Harlem.

Pictured above: Harlem cabaret dancers

Larsen’s carefully layered plot in Passing is clear evidence that she too adhered to this convention. On the surface, it appears as though Passing is about the mulatto struggle with identity and belonging, but a closer reading reveals sexual undertones that suggest a lesbian subplot. Readers follow Irene and Clare’s dramatic reunion and the close relationship that ensues when Clare becomes increasingly involved with Irene’s life. In contrast to the two women’s marriages, which are projected as relatively unemotional, the interactions between Irene and Clare are laden with unadulterated passion. Irene admits that she has a “strange and compelling….fascination” with Clare (Larsen, 161) and often finds herself taken aback by Clare’s beauty. Irene’s bouts of admiration for Clare vanish almost as soon as they surface, as she is often quick to darken and express disdain for Clare’s presence. The apparent flux of Irene’s emotions mimics the expression and repression paradox that characterized the Harlem Renaissance. The end of the novel sees the mysterious death of Clare, which leads us to infer that Larsen is commenting on the tragic aspects of sexual repression.

It is impossible to engage in a complete discussion of the Harlem Renaissance without acknowledging the contributions of white patrons and intellectuals. White patronage had a profound effect on the vitality of the Harlem Renaissance, and evidence suggests that the Renaissance would not have reached the heights that it did without generous white contributions. White money and white connections were crucial catalysts for the movement in its early years. While their intentions were usually good, white support still elicited mixed feelings among the Harlem community, as some defined their participation in the movement as a sort of “refined racism” (Kellner). The New Negro movement soon became a form of entertainment for whites. White downtowners would flock to Harlem to “experience the primitive without having to go to Africa” (Dorsey). The influx of whites brought the Jim Crow mentality to Harlem, and soon popular cabarets and nightclubs were turning away black clientele. This segregation made sense considering that whites mostly owned clubs. What took place was essentially a white capitalization and exploitation (something that Dorsey calls blaxploitation) of African-American success. Oftentimes, the only blacks to be seen in clubs were the servers and entertainers.

Larsen’s character Hugh Wentworth, a white liaison to Irene and her Harlem community, is included in Passing to touch upon the effects of white patronage on the Renaissance, and more notably, how the social-dynamics played out between the two races. Hugh is more than just a fleeting appearance in the novel; he appears in multiple scenes and exhibits what seems to be a close friendship with Irene. To Clare’s shock, Hugh frequents at Irene’s Negro Welfare League parties. Irene replies that Hugh, like other whites of his kind, attends her parties to “gaze on the Negroes” (Larsen, 198).

However Irene’s husband Brian is decidedly skeptical about Hugh’s intentions and inclusion in the Harlem community, commenting that “Hugh think[s] he’s God, you know” (Larsen, 215). Brian’s perspective invites readers to consider the paradox behind white patronage: while whites certainly helped move the Harlem Renaissance forward, they did so while patronizing the black race.

Two Sides of the Same Coin:

Arthur Spingarn (pictured left) and Carl Van Vechten (pictured right)

Both Spingarn and Vechten were notable supporters of black artists and writers, but their legacies are quick to diverge. Spingarn has been described as the “most selfless of white philanthropists,” as he devoted his life to promoting racial equality through various measures and initiatives. Spingarn and his brother Joel crafted a coveted medal of achievement for talented black, ensuring its continuity by backing it with a hefty trust fund. W.E.B. Du Bois and Langston Hughes are among some of the Harlem writers who were awarded the Spingarn Medal. Van Vechten, on the other hand, was one of the most controversial white patrons that white and black scholars both felt a “strong prejudice against” (Kellner, 124). The circulation of his book Nigger Heaven quickly instigated criticism, as it reinforced black stereotypes by focusing primarily on the seedy side of Harlem. This isn’t to say that Van Vechten’s admiration for the black arts wasn’t genuine, but there is suggestion that he used his “Harlem acquaintances badly” (Kellner, 125). Despite the controversy, Van Vechten’s book did succeed in gaining white readership for black literature (Kellner, 130). Coincidently, Van Vechten and Larsen were close friends, and he is credited with helping launch her literary career.

Nella Larsen was a child of a mixed marriage between a West Indian father (of African descent) and a Danish mother, so the notion of passing between races was familiar to her. Compared to the amount of literature on Harlem blacks, there was considerably less material on mulattoes and their perception of the changing race-consciousness. Alain Locke, the pioneer of the New Negro Movement, was criticized for “excluding [the] mulatto from the Harlem issue” (Stewart, 16). And indeed, mulattoes were ironically excluded from a movement with a fundamental aim of promoting self and racial identity. Since mulattoes could not claim total loyalty to either race, they were caught in a difficult limbo during a time when racial identification was especially prominent. A mulatto herself, Larsen uses what is known as the “tragic mulatto” as the protagonist of Passing. Tate describes the conventional tragic mulatto as a character who passes races and reveals pangs of anguish resulting from abandoning his or her black identity (Tate, 142). Larsen’s use of a tragic mulatto character not only breaks the Harlem literary movement’s convention of a black hero or heroine, but lends insight on the complexities of identity assertion.

Nella Larsen, a mulatto herself, was able to pass races like her characters Clare and Irene.

“Alain Locke.” Accessed from Howard University Education Web. Web. 13 March 2013. http://www.howard.edu/library/assist/guides/Alain-Locke.htm

De Jongh, James. Vicious Modernism: Black Harlem and the Literary Imagination. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Print.

Dorsey, Brian. Who Stole the Soul? Blaxploitation Echoed in the Harlem Renaissance. Salzburg: Instiut Fur Anglistik Und Amerikanistik Universitat Salzburg, 1997. Print.

Douglas, Aaron. Song of Towers. 1934. New York Times. Web. 18 March 2013. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/12/arts/design/12doug.html?_r=2&

Fultz, Michael. “‘The Morning Cometh’: African-American Periodicals, Education and the Black Middle Class, 1900-1930.” The Journal of Negro History 80.3 (1995): 97-112. JStor. Web. 14 March 2013.

Hayden, Palmer. A Midsummer Night in Harlem. 1938. PBS. Web. 13 March 2013.

http://www.pbs.org/wnet/aaworld/arts/hayden.html

Kellner, B. “Refined Racism: White Patronage in the Harlem Renaissance.” The Harlem Renaissance Re-Examined. Ed. Victor A. Kramer and Robert A. Russ. New York: Whitston Publishing Company, 1997. 121-132. Print.

Larsen, Nella. Passing. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1986. Print.

Schwarz, A.B. Christa. “Transgressive sexuality and the Literature of the Harlem Renaissance.” The Cambridge Companion to the Harlem Renaissance. Ed. George Hutchinson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. 141-154. Print.

Scruggs, Charles. “Sexual Desire, Modernity, and Modernism in the Fiction of Nella Larsen and Rudolph Fisher.” The Cambridge Companion to the Harlem Renaissance. Ed. George Hutchinson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. 155-169.

Stewart, Jeffrey C. “The New Negro as Citizen.” The Cambridge Companion to the Harlem Renaissance. Ed. George Hutchinson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. 13-27. Print.