Metabolic rift was initially posited by Karl Marx (Foster 1999).  Metabolic rift occurs when food and fibre from the countryside are shipped great distances to be consumed and processed in urban spaces.  Consequently, soil nutrients are depleted from the countryside while waste is accumulated in the city.  In other words, the spatial separation of country and town ensures that natural systems do not replenish themselves through waste recycling.

This problem was also articulated by the leading German agricultural chemist Justus von Liebig (Hardy 1991).  During the 19th and 20th centuries, Europeans needed to increasingly rely on fertilizers to renew the soil depletion of the countryside (Hardy 1991).  Meanwhile, the scourge of urban sites became mass quantities of waste and an inability to safely deal with the waste.  In short, the natural cycle of food and resource extraction that occurred more locally was disrupted by the rise of industrialized capitalist metropoles.  Populations moved from the country to the town in great numbers and exacerbated the problem of metabolic rift.

Metabolic rift can be understood then in a fracturing of humans from natural cycles.  Modern cities and industrialised capitalism ensured that this fracture would deepen and lengthen over time.  Nonetheless, Ebenezer Howard postulates a meaningful solution to metabolic rift through the creation of garden cities in Garden Cities of To-morrow.  

The cities would contain 5000 acres of agricultural land that rings a 1000 acre heavily gardened city centre.  Thus humans and human society would be reintegrated into a living system where soil depletion is slowed because of waste recycling.  Therefore, Howard’s garden city is an answer to the problem of human society existing outside of natural systems.

Metabolic rift could be applied in a broader sense to multiple systems.  That is to say, the modern city and capitalist practices created multiple rifts in natural human systems.  The film Metropolis explores these issues through filmic imagery.

For example: Freder Fredersen, son of the overlord of Metropolis, ventures into the depths of the worker’s city.  There he witnesses a giant machine explosion and he hallucinates a large monster in the smoke and ruin that sacrificially consumes the workers.  This imagery reflects the dehumanization and dismemberment that comes from industrialization.

Freder immediately rushes to his father’s office to explain how his brothers, the workers, have been consumed by the monstrous machine.  Freder realises that the great class division between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat is not a natural division, but rather one that removes humanity from the mechanistic doom below the utopian city.

Industrialized capitalism created a world where rifts opened up in multiple systems.  Soil depletion and recycling became disjointed while class divisions deepened.  Ebenezer Howard seemed to be answering these problems of class rift and metabolic rift.  Similarly, other city planning seems also an attempt to reintegrate fractured systems and heal the fractured human psyche in the modern city.

Foster, John Bellamy. “Marx’s Theory of Metabolic Rift: Classical Foundations for

Environmental Sociology.” American Journal of Sociology 105, no. 2 (1999): 366-405. Accessed October 14, 2015. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/210315.

Hardy, Dennis. From Garden Cities to New Towns: Campaigning for Town and Country Planning, 1899-1946. London: E & FN Spon, 1991.

Howard, Ebenezer. Garden Cities of To-morrow. Memphis, Tennessee: General Books LLC, 2012.

The metro of Moscow was built in 1930 under Joseph Stalin rule. The project was realized in four stages. The first of the four stages was completed in 1935 when the first line, measuring 11 kilometres was open to the public. The second stage was completed in 1938 before the outbreak of WW2. The third stage was delayed, but not interrupted by the War, and two more sections were put in service. The completion of the third stage, in spite of the War, is in itself a tribute to the efficiency and capability of the Soviets. In the stations built during that period, the traditional socialist designs are replaced by war motifs. The two stations built during the third stages were inaugurated in 1943 and 1944. The fourth stage of the original plan begun after the War. The decoration and design of the last stage is arguably considered the best of all four. The construction of an even deeper section of the metro began during the Cold War era. The stations were planned to double up as shelter in the event of a nuclear war.

The Moscow Metro is no ordinary underground railway system. Stalin’s vision was to create unique stations that would double as palaces for the people of the Soviet-Union. The project was so successful that the Moscow metro is classified as historic monuments. An estimated 358000 meter square of marble was used to build sculptures, mosaics and columns that compose the decor of the miniatures underground palaces that is the Moscow metro. They depict, within the socialists limits, the great events of the ancient and modern Russian history. The realization of the magnificent project required an estimated 75000 people, mostly from the mining industry. Thousands of volunteers also participated in Stalin’s grandiose project. The metro of Moscow remains the biggest one in the world even to this day. As of 2015, the Moscow metro has 197 stations and its railway is 329 km long and mostly underground.

The initial construction was on average 40 meters deep (nowadays its deepest section is 74 meters) and offered a shelter to thousands of moscovites during the Second World War air raids. Stalins agenda of security and protection was hardly a secret when building the metro. Underneath the marble and beautiful frescos lays steel columns and concrete walls built to withstand a series of bomb attacks on Moscow. The animosity climate that reign during the 1930’s indicate the inevitability of a Nazi attack on Moscow. Stalin therefore used the metro as a passive defence mechanism thus protecting thousands of citizens. The Metro is also home to one of Russia’s greatest mysteries. If the protection agenda was known, the mystery behind “metro 2” still remain an unsolved puzzle of the Soviet Union. The station Chistye Prudy is believe to lead the way to a secret metro line laying profoundly under the city. Speculation has it that the metro line is design to be used by the officials as a head-quarter if the city ever comes under attack. The lines would connect the Kremlin, the Federal Security Services (FSB) head quarters, the ministry of defence and the airport. It is suggested that it was one of Stalin’s project in his paranoid need of security and protection. Certain documents retrieved by Washington allude to the project but its existence remains a mystery.
Confidential state secrets aside, the construction of the Moscow metro is an incredible achievement. The record time in which it was built demonstrate to the socialist sympathizer the efficiency of the Regime. Its beauty and palatial allure pay tribute to the people of Russia and their National History in a magnificent way.

www.dementieva.fr/russie/lemetro.html

A French journalist investigation of the mystery behind Metro 2. 

www.youtube.com Russie Video, Découvertes des Stations du métro de Mouscou (Russia Moscow metro) T

he video takes you on a virtual tour of the Moscow metro. The narrator speaks French, but you can mute him and still enjoy the image. 

All the pictures are part of the public domain and have been uploaded from   www.commons.wikimedia.org

Panorama of Kelowna

Personally, when I read Howard’s work, one thing consistently popped into my head.

This is a great idea! It would never work here.

But, I mean when we had our discussion on September 28th, one of the things that was apparently about my approach to the idea of the Garden city was that I’m a skeptic of it. Which couldn’t be truer.

While I love the idea of a Garden city, one that allows for cheap rent, a real community feel and one that works with nature (in a way), it’s highly impractical. One of my comments on Monday was that this idea seems fit for places like the Prairies where we have vast tracts of open land where multiple cities could be set up in a true sense of Howard’s idea. The issue with his idea is that terrain has a massive influence on how a city can grow, the industries that it can be involved in, as well as its potential for more. One of the examples that immediately comes to mind for me is Kelowna itself. We could never have a Garden City in the way that Howard envisions it in our region because of a multitude of factors.

Kelowna’s growth is dictated by the region it’s located in. We’re in a valley, so naturally, the city flows with the valley, expanding first to the easiest areas along the valley floor then along the gentler slopes and then up the hills to the plateaus. Howards plan would call for large areas of flat land, something that we just do not have much of.

Then, when you think of our regional economy, the first things that pop to mind are Fruit, Wine and Tourism. Neither of these are things that Howard properly addressed in his plan. How would tourism work in Kelowna if we were the Garden city concept? Would it even? Then our Wine industry, though it seems well suited for Howard’s agricultural aims, it doesn’t feel like a good fit for the idea. While our fruit industry seems well suited for his ideas, again with the same thing as wine, it doesn’t seem like a good fit.

Why is that? Well our fruit and wine industry are large because of the fact that they flourish here because of the region, its temperatures, its soil, and the disposition of the valley. These are all things unique to our region, something that wouldn’t fit well with Howard’s universal plan.

What I guess I’m really trying to get at, is that while Howard’s Garden City proposal is an inherently good idea, it’s much too vague for a lot of regions. Economies and the growth of a town are dictated by the unique circumstances in which said town is situated in, something that Howard doesn’t address (or at least that I can see) in the least in his plan. Thus, it would never work in Kelowna. Or in reality, any of British Columbia in my opinion.

The discussion on Ebenezer Howard’s book Gardens of To-morrow and the other utopian plans touched on in class has proved to be a fascinating discussion. However, it can be argued that the ideas of these utopian writers perhaps did not leave room for the unpredictability of human behavior in society. When these plans began to emerge in the 19^th century, the thinkers behind the ideas witnessed the problems of a city and believed it was due to the lay-out and construction of a city that induced many of the complications, thus deciding that rather than placing a Band-Aid on parts of it, it was vital to create an entirely new one. It is true that the structure of the city can produce different outcomes; freeing traffic due to wider streets for example. There is a lot of planning and control over the imagined city in order to produce the ideal society. Howard, for example, is quite meticulous in the details as he seeks to demonstrate how his idea would be functional in a real life scenario. Although he was lenient in areas such as the aesthetics of the buildings, he still put quite of a bit of thought into making sure there were as little unpredictable situations as possible. When Howard was creating the Garden City, he believed it to be a possible reality, and it is true that the plans of the city could produce positive effects. However, I do believe that Howard and many other Utopian writers depended heavily on the rationality of man, rather than making room in their ideas for unpredictability and man’s irrational, emotional behavior. They expected the people in these societies to be utopian in thought as well as the cities. Utopian cities attempt to control what is hard to control, and often do not leave a lot of room for irregularity. Unfortunately, I believe it reaches utopian status because of the idealism that people will do things justly and accordingly, forgetting that whether people react a certain way due to nature versus nurture, some things cannot be planned for. His idea of a city layout can improve many aspects of life, but may be unable to survive for long. These utopian societies offer great ideas and can be a model for dealing with problems such as traffic congestion, urban sprawl, health issues, and slums but they become utopian due to the unpredictability of humans, demonstrating that not everything in a society can be controlled.

Currently, Melbourne’s municipal government is working hard on achieving zero emissions for the down town core. Though there are certainly critics of this effort, it seems to enjoy overwhelming support from both citizens of Melbourne and those who champion cleaner technology and reducing our carbon footprint. In many ways, Melbourne is a trailblazer for clean technology and that’s very apparent with efforts to refurbish existing infrastructure to meet a higher and more efficient standard. But what falls to the wayside in the wake of such advances? Studies in recent years have ranked Melbourne 321st most affordable city to live out of 325 cities that were examined. The Demographia International Housing Affordability Survey called Melbourne “severely unaffordable” in 2011 and according to government statistics, Melbourne’s rental vacancy rate was 1.3 per cent in 2010 while only 1% would be considered affordable for low-income earners. So what does this say about Melbourne? Of course, it can be argued that housing costs can be tied into a larger real estate shortage in Australia, but should it not be a priority for local officials to make Melbourne an affordable place to live even for its most vulnerable citizens? The answer in my mind is simple: it should be, but it’s not. Though it’s easy to interpret this sustainable development movement in Melbourne as a genuine social and political statement, I would argue that these efforts are not much more than a façade and an attempt to attract business to the down town core while ignoring the needs of their citizens. Instead of making policy around attracting wealthier residents, why not try to improve life for the residents who already live in Melbourne?

That being said, encouraging economic growth is an essential part of maintaining a free-enterprise market in the city. However, if this trend continues there will undoubtedly be an exodus of middle to low-income earners to surrounding areas who will then have to make long commutes into the city. Also, it’s important that I clarify: I indeed applaud efforts towards sustainability, but not at the expense of expelling all but the well-to-do from the down town core–especially one so notable for its vibrant diversity.

Read more: http://www.theage.com.au/national/the-rental-pressure-cooker-20100402-rjvb.html#ixzz2mZthsY55

http://www.theage.com.au/national/the-rental-pressure-cooker-20100402-rjvb.html

I recently ventured to BCIT in Burnaby. The architecture of the campus was modernism at its worst. In every direction you walked there was a dilapidated concrete building accented by cold metal and glass. Finding my way through the campus was hellish, nothing separated one building’s appearance from the next. On frequent occasion I entered the incorrect building, I have never had to ask for directions so often. Those students roaming the campus seemed well versed in directing people through their concrete maze.

The architecture may have been functional or in vogue at some point. Alas in 2013 it epitomized the concept of bleak. I never believed that something as fundamentally secondary, in my books, such as aesthetics could have such a profound effect on me. From the moment I stepped on campus a depressive cloud set over me. That experience instigated an epiphany in me, I can only speculate how living in a world bedecked by cold steel and blank concrete could effect a person, could effect a society.

Those unlucky enough to inhabit those infamous prefab concrete housing complexes in post war Europe must have been adversely affected by their bleak surroundings. I am not the least surprised by the multitude of social issues, which arose in that atmosphere, a surrounding void of visual stimulus.

I count myself blessed to live in a time and location, which embraces diversity in architecture.

To check out as you read about Sofia; amazing wall murals on old apartment buildings:

http://www.streetartutopia.com/?s=sofia&search=Search+

And the ‘Snail House’ (mentioned on pg. 174 of Iron Curtains) in full color:

http://www.strangebuildings.com/snail-house-sofia-bulgaria/

In the spirit of our recent PechaKucha presentations highlighting our varied utopian redevelopment schemes, I would like to introduce you to a current urban development project in Edmonton Alberta. The new community of Blatchford aims to house up to 30,000 residents and will include employment opportunities for up to 11,000. The project will cover 217 hectares of land and aims to transform the City Centre Airport zone into a ‘mixed-use urban community’ focused on sustainability. According to the city of Edmonton website, Blatchford ultimately aims to ‘raise the bar world wide for communities that will follow’ by exemplifying the potential of sustainable communities.

A central focus is the idea of sustainability, both at home and in the community, stressing that the development will use 100 percent renewable energy and feature plenty of green space. In this way, the development does present some affinities to Ebenezer Howard, who stressed that people require access to green space. For example, the community plans to feature a large public park and plans to allow room for urban agriculture. The vision for the city even includes plans for up to 600 community garden plots!

Interestingly, the plan also displays affinities to Le Corbusier. First the vision for Blatchford places significant emphasis on the importance of preserving historical sites. Second, the community downplays the need for vehicular traffic and places more emphasis on the importance of the pedestrian, promoting alternatives such as bicycling, walking, or utilizing public transit. According to the city website, “Residents will be able to walk or cycle and take transit rather than rely on cars”. Moreover, Blatchford will feature a number of trails throughout the community that will be connected to trails throughout the remainder of Edmonton, much like Le Corbusier’s ‘meandering pathways’.

Finally, the new development will feature an array of housing options catering to ‘all stages of life’. Blatchford will however place emphasis on providing family housing with a minimum of two bedrooms and featuring plenty of storage space. To appease Jane Jacobs, Blatchford even guarantees a ‘vibrant street life’. Moreover, to appeal to all families, regardless of income, the community will offer 20 percent affordable housing. Finally, these homes will also use less power and heat. This sustainability ultimately allows residents to decrease the size of their carbon footprint.

Blatchford appears to borrow the best from all utopian urban planners to create a seemingly flawless community nestle in the heart of a large city. After reading up on the development, it might even convince me to brave those cold Edmonton winters! What do you think? Would you live in Blatchford?

Construction will begin in 2014.

Note: All information comes from the City of Edmonton website. For more information please consult the following link:

http://www.edmonton.ca/blatchfordedmonton/about-blatchford.aspx

As some of you know, I spent much of my childhood growing up in Papua New Guinea (PNG), where my parents served in missions.  PNG is a 3^rd world country, often considered to be one of the world’s ‘final frontiers’.  With over 700 distinct languages, rugged terrain, and tribal customs, the nation is one of the most undeveloped and primitive in the world.

This backwards, primitive image rapidly changes, however, when one visits the nation’s capital.  The capital city of PNG is Port Moresby, and is truly the gateway to the nation.  I have visited the city many times, and can attest that it is a truly fascinating place.  Port Moresby is a booming metropolis that is growing incredibly wealthy due to huge growth in its business sector and major investment (mainly from Australia and China) in PNG’s vast natural resources of oil and gold.  The city’s population is burgeoning rapidly, and its cost of living has skyrocketed.

The urban planning and structure of Port Moresby is a study in contradictions.  On the one hand, the wealthy and developed areas of the capital are similar to any modern-day city.  High-rise buildings, luxurious hotels, and modern apartments dominate the downtown landscape.  Port Moresby is also home to PNG’s only international airport, served by the national carrier Air Niugini.  Jackson’s International Airport and Air Niugini facilitate the transport of businessmen and investors from all over the world to engage in PNG’s vibrant resource industry.

On the other hand, Port Moresby IS the capital of a 3^rd world nation, and the poverty and underdevelopment that characterizes the rest of the nation is readily visible in certain sectors of the city.  Standing in stark contrast to the wealthy downtown core, the outlying areas of the city are filled with run-down settlements, shantytowns, and primitive villages – areas unknown to tourists, ignored by the government, and forgotten by the businessmen and wealthy elite of Port Moresby.  Crime and violence run rampant, and the city has one of the highest crime rates in the world.

The stark contrast between rich and poor in Port Moresby’s urban atmosphere is often hidden, but the two sometimes intersect in visible ways.  The photos below capture this reality, revealing the modern downtown core in the background, with primitive village huts built over the water in the foreground.

For Port Moresby’s architects and urban planners, the current challenge is to find a way to bridge the gap between the modern, wealthy sectors of the city and the primitive, village-like areas.  City planners must attempt to find a way to bring wealth and development to all areas of the city, focusing on modernizing architecture and infrastructure in the shantytowns of Port Moresby.  Rather than simply focusing on the modern downtown core, a city-wide development focus must be employed if true improvements are to come to the city as a whole.

SOURCES FOR IMAGES:

– http://geology.com/world/papua-new-guinea-satellite-image.shtml

– http://devpolicy.org/png-37-years-after-independence-the-question-of-leadership-20121109/png-flag/

– http://www.llns.com.pg/our_firm.php

– http://www.skyscrapercity.com/showthread.php?t=63447

– http://wikimapia.org/1803466/Parliament-House

– http://islandmeri.wordpress.com/2011/02/28/views-of-port-moresby-on-a-dull-day/

– http://www.placesonline.com/detail_information/3362669/crowne_plaza_hotel_port_moresby.asp

– http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Air_Niugini_Boeing_757-200_SYD_Zhao.jpg

– http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Port_Moresby_080805-N-9689V-004.jpg

– http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Poor_coastal_housing_at_Hanuabada_in_Port_Moresby2.jpg

– http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Squatters_at_Rubish_Tip_in_Port_Moresby.jpg

– http://livingtravel.com/pacific/papuanewguinea/portmoresby/portmoresby.htm

– http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/features/port-moresby-wired-for-change/story-e6frg6z6- 1226027895290

– http://www.smec.com/Default.aspx?aProjId=708

– http://www.emporis.com/city/portmoresby-papuanewguinea