Category Archives: Science Communication

The Toba catastrophe

If you trekked through the mountains of northern Sumatra you might see one very long, serene lake and a sizable oblong island in its middle. The whole thing looks very peaceful until you realize it came to be through a cataclysm of unimaginable proportions.

Around 74,000 years ago in those mountains, a supervolcano was brewing world changing fires that erupted suddenly and violently. 

Around 2800 km³ of material was released in an outpouring of hot gasses and volcanic ash that wreaked havoc on an area of approximately 20000 km² around the volcano. This means that an area the size of modern day Slovenia was vaporized, since the temperature of these initial volcanic ejections can reach upwards of a 1000 °C.  Ash deposits are found today as far away as the eastern parts of Africa.

Scientists say that a global winter ensued which devastated human populations around the

world, leaving only a few surviving groups in the denvse forests of Africa. Investigations of the human genome have revealed that modern humans within Africa possess much higher genetic diversity than do humans outside of Africa. Evidence from studies of mitochondrial DNA suggests that humans passed through what is known as a genetic bottleneck: a profound decrease in genetic diversity and a fall in the total human population to a few thousand breeding pairs. This is known as the Toba catastrophe theory.

In recent years, more evidence and more precise dating of the eruption timeline paints a different, more interesting picture. Some researchers posit that human beings didn’t just survive, but even thrived after the eruption. We have found ancient tools on African coastlines both above and below the layer of ash deposited by Toba. Interestingly, a greater number and diversity of tools seem to be found after the explosion. 

The climate data is complicated. Studies of ice cores reveal that the earth cooled drastically right after the eruption and there followed several years of lower precipitation. But other data suggest that certain species of plants recovered quickly after the event, and fossil evidence indicates that orangutang populations close to the area didn’t drop much either.

Scientists now believe that Toba didn’t release a huge amount of sulfuric acid aerosols as compared with other volcanoes, which contribute significantly to the cooling effect. The chemical composition of the magma might have been such that proceeding winter was substantially less intense, and it is theorized that a lot of water vapor might have been released which actually would have counteracted the cooling effect.

The mystery is far from solved. A recent 2021 study looked at the effect of the eruption on the ozone layer, and concluded that it would have made possible for a lot of dangerous UV light to reach the surface of the earth, killing off a lot of humans in the process. Then there is the glaring observation that Neanderthals went extinct only 30000 years ago, long after Toba. 

So, there are a lot of unknowns. The only thing we know for certain is that earth will see another Toba at some point in the future, and the fallout could be much, much worse.

The Politics of Renaming

Named discoveries are everywhere in chemistry. From Planck’s constant to Suzuki-Miyaura coupling reactions, these names represent the legacy of the scientists who contributed greatly to our study. However, great scientists are not always great people.

A photo of Nobel Prize-winning physicist and known eugenics advocate William Schockley. The naming of the “Schockley-Queisser limit” after him is controversial. Photo by Chuck Painter / Stanford News Service

For example, William Shockley was a physicist whose work on semiconductors earned him a third of a Nobel Prize in 1956. He had several discoveries named after him, including the Shockley-Queisser Limit which is a theoretical limit commonly discussed in solar cell research. He was also a known racist and eugenics advocate. Among other things, he proposed that women with low IQs should be paid to be sterilized. Thus, it is somewhat unsurprising that Ehrler et al. proposed that the Schockley-Queisser Limit be renamed as to not celebrate such a character. The authors also called into question the naming of the Haber process and the unit of Debye based on transgressions of the scientists they are named after. This discussion caused much controversy.

In her essay “The Peril of Politicizing Science”, chemist Anna Krylov warns against the idea of renaming discoveries named after problematic figures. She argues that “cancel culture” is a slippery slope towards censorship and ideologically controlled science, which hinders scientific progress in the long run. Krylov also writes that the act of renaming erases the complexities of the intersection between science and ethics, and that teaching and studying the history of science would be more productive and instructive for future scientists.

In an essay titled “Science Is Political, and We Must Deal with It”, science writer Philip Ball responds to Krylov’s protests. Ball argues that removing the names do not stop textbooks from discussing the ethics of science and the people who made the important discoveries. He also writes that naming discoveries after people perpetuates the idea that science is propelled by individual genius and not a long series of collaborative efforts.

Both sides of the argument agree that there is a lot of nuances in these circumstances, but fail to agree on one important idea: Ehrler et al. and Ball believe that celebrating people with moral failings suggests that their behaviour is acceptable as long as the science they produce is of high quality; Krylov believes that we should evaluate a scientist’s contribution solely on the merit of the science and not on their individual beliefs.

There is no clear way to answer whether we should rename these familiar terms such as the Haber process or the Schockley-Queisser limit, and I hope productive discourse within the scientific community will lead to a satisfying solution.

~ Ying Cai

Coloured Contact Lenses: Do They Bring More Harm than Good?

Are you thinking about wearing coloured contact lenses to change the colour of your eyes? While it may appear to be a simple and risk-free way to enhance your natural eye colour or make a fashion statement, it is critical to consider the chemical composition as well as the potential risks associated with these lenses. Let’s look at the chemistry of coloured contact lenses and weigh the upsides and downsides.

Better Vision different colour contact lenses. Source.

Reasons Against Coloured Contact Lenses:

  • They Increase the Risk of Eye Infections: Contact lenses are made of hydrophilic polymers, which attract and retain water. This makes them an ideal surface for microorganisms to grow on, increasing the risk of eye infections. If you do not clean and disinfect your coloured contact lenses properly, you may increase your risk.

    Common monomers and polymers used in contact lens production. PMMA—poly methyl methacrylate, PVA—poly vinyl alcohol, PEG—poly ethylene glycol, DMA—dimethyl methacrylate, HEMA—hydroxy ethyl methacrylate, NVP—N-vinyl pyrrolidone, EGDMA—ethylene glycol dimethacrylate, PDMS—poly dimethyl siloxane, TRIS—3-[tris(trimethylsiloxy)silyl]propyl methacrylate. Source

  • Manufacturers Might Not Follow Strict Safety Standards: Coloured contact lenses are frequently regarded as cosmetic devices and are therefore not subject to the same regulations as medical devices. Some manufacturers may fail to adhere to strict safety standards, resulting in poorly made lenses that harm your eyes. It is critical to select a reputable brand and avoid purchasing lenses from untrustworthy sources.
  • Sharing Coloured Contact Lenses is a Big No-No: Sharing coloured contact lenses or wearing them for an extended period of time can increase the risk of eye infection. This is because the lenses can harbour bacteria, which can cause long-term damage to your eyes. It is critical to carefully follow the instructions and avoid sharing your lenses with anyone.

Reasons in Favour of Coloured Contact Lenses:

Different coloured contact lenses in the same individual. Source.

  • They Allow Personal Expression: Coloured contact lenses are a fun and versatile way to express yourself and your sense of style. You can switch up your look as often as you like because there are so many different colours and designs to choose from. This is especially appealing to those who do not want to commit to long-term solutions such as cosmetic surgery or tattoos.
  • They Are Made of Safe Materials: Coloured contact lenses are made of eye-safe materials such as silicone hydrogels or methacrylate-based polymers. These materials are designed to be biocompatible, which means they will not harm or irritate your eyes.
  • They Can Be Customized to Your Needs: Coloured contact lenses are available in prescription and non-prescription forms, allowing you to tailor them to your specific requirements. This is especially beneficial for people who need vision correction but want to experiment with different eye colours.

Finally, while coloured contact lenses can be a fun and exciting way to experiment with your personal style, it is critical to prioritize your eye health and safety. You can reduce your risk of eye infections and enjoy the benefits of coloured contacts by selecting a reputable brand, following proper cleaning procedures, and avoiding sharing your lenses. Whether you’re looking to enhance your natural eye colour or completely change your look, remember to prioritize your eye health and enjoy your new look with confidence!

~ Vivian Hou

The end is in sight…or maybe not.

Go into the UBC chemical storeroom, and you will find a range of chemicals. But what you won’t find at UBC, or anywhere else, is the element unquadseptium. And that’s because unquadseptium, with an atomic number of 147, has yet to be proven to exist and, according to some chemists, will never exist.

Since Dimitri Mendeleev developed the periodic table in 1875, chemists have added 55 elements to its rows and periods. While most of the 118 elements we are familiar with today exist naturally, some exist briefly and only after the collision of high-speed particles. These “synthetic” elements include einsteinium (atomic number 99) through organessan (atomic number 118).

Dimitri Mendeleev’s prototype for the periodic table. Source

Creating new elements is an ongoing area of research. The question that divides chemists is whether a limit exists for nuclear mass and, therefore, the number of elements that may exist. Multiple chemists have used Einstein’s theory of relativity to try and determine the limit to the mass of an atom’s nucleus.

The nucleus of an atom exerts a gravitational and magnetic pull on the orbiting electrons. As the mass of the nucleus grows, so does its pull on the electrons, and as modeled by the Bohr equation, orbiting electrons must travel faster to prevent falling inwards. According to Einstein’s theory of relativity, mass increases exponentially with speed. A result of this relationship is that the speed of light presents a universal speed limit for matter.

This universal limit led Richard Feynman and other chemists to propose element 137 as the limit to the periodic table. Feynman argued that beyond element 137, electrons would have to travel faster than the speed of light to remain in orbit and could not exist according to the laws of physics.

Pekka Pyykkö’s proposed 172-element periodic table. Source

However, many chemists argue that the limit for nuclear mass should be much higher. Notably, Pekka Pyykkö from the University of Helsinki published a paper in 2011 that theorized the existence of elements up to atomic number 172. His paper built upon the work of physicists Berndt Muller and Johann Rafelski. The two physicists used the Dirac equation, which considers effects ignored by the Bohr equation, to find the maximum limit for nuclear mass. According to the Dirac equation, orbiting electrons reach the speed of light when the atomic number equals 173 and not 137.

Pushing the limits of the periodic table further still, some chemists and physicists believe that nuclear mass is unlimited. They propose that new quantum behavior of electrons, unknown to present science, allows the orbit of “superheavy” nuclei. Physicist Walter Greiner believes that after element 172, electrons enter a never-ending continuum of negative energy. Greigner believes that the periodic table “will never end!”

In the coming years, chemists and physicists will discover new elements as we develop stronger particle accelerators and detectors with greater sensitivity. However, it remains unknown what the limit to these discoveries will be; only time will tell whether future chemists will see the likes of unquadseptium in their labs.

Is Hair Dyeing Harmful?

Hair coloring (HC) is a beauty practice that changes one’s natural hair colour using chemicals to remove pigments in the hair shaft, melanin, by oxidizing the pigments, and replacing them with other pigments of choice. HC comes in different types, depending on how long a person wants the colour to last by changing the concentration of hydrogen peroxide (HP), ammonia, and paraphenylenediamine (PPD). Ammonia causes the swelling of the hair shaft, opening hair cuticles so HC pigments can penetrate into hair. HP oxidizes melanin in the hair strand, removing its  natural colour to create a canvas. Finally, PPD complexes with HP to form a colourful complex, which then binds to our hair to give it a new colour. 

 

Health concerns relating to hair colouring practice.

It is undeniable that HC improves the appearance drastically if you choose the right colour, but the harm of “forcing” hair to change color to health is extremely harmful that not many people are aware of. Several studies reported a possible correlation between certain chemicals in many oxidative-type HC products to a few sub-categories of cancer. Ames et. al. founded that the oxidation reaction between HP and each of the three main chemicals in oxidative-type hair colouring products – PPD, 2,5-diaminotuluene (TDA), and 2,5-diaminoanisole – yield a mutagen Bandrowski’s base. They conducted a facial absorption test on rats and found that this compound is a carcinogen to rats. Some HC users reported experiencing allergic reactions after using an at-home HC product or obtaining HC services from salons. Several hairdressers experienced frequent incidents of hand dermatitis from long-term exposure to HC products. This is because PPD, TDA, and other chemical compounds in many HC products are strong and extreme sensitizing compounds that lead to contact dermatitis (Figure 1) in many people who directly come in contact with the chemicals. 

Figure 1: Contact dermatitis occurs when skin comes into contact with a substance that causes our body to elicit one or several allergic reactions. Source: Wikimedia

 

Why do people still choose to dye their hair? 

Despite health concerns surrounding chemical compounds in HC products, HC remains a popular beauty practice these days among all ages, either to change their natural hair colours or to cover up grey hairs. For many people, HC not only improves their appearance and boosts their self-confidence if they choose a colour that matches their complexion but also a way to express their personality. To avoid the harmful effects that come from strong concentrations of HP and other compounds in HC products, experts from the US Food and Drug Administration recommend people to opt for temporary or semi-permanent HC, which contains the same chemical formula in permanent HC products, but at lower concentration. In addition, hairdressers always wear gloves, and some would wear masks to avoid inhaling the fume, while handling HC products. However, HC users and hairdressers should consult dermatologists or health experts if they experience any reactions or health concerns after using HC products to avoid the risk of having cancer. 



MSG: A Story of how Bad Science Led to a Bad Reputation

Many North Americans believe that MSG causes headache, nausea, drowsiness, obesity and even heart disease.

In a recent poll MSG was found to rank highly among ingredients that American consumers avoid for health reasons.

Data from the International Food Information Council (2018). Figure adapted from (source).

So, what is MSG? and why are people afraid of it?

Crystalline MSG (source).

MSG is short for monosodium glutamate. It is one of the most widely used flavour enhancers. When added to food it provides a delicious umami flavour.

Glutamate is one of the most naturally abundant proteinogenic amino acids. It is naturally found in protein containing food. MSG is simply the sodium salt of glutamate.

MSG was isolated by Japanese biochemist Kikunae Ikeda from seaweed in 1908. Since then, it has been a flavouring additive is common in many foods.

Some are biased to assuming that MSG is only common in Asian cuisines. However, one should note MSG is far more versatile. Added to most bagged potato chips, fast foods, taco seasonings, and soups.

The negative view came from a 1968 study which dubbed MSG the cause of “Chinese restaurant Syndrome”. A condition said to cause headaches, sweat, and abdominal pain.

The name alone is targeting Chinese food without warrant to do so. The use of and naturally occurrence of MSG is far more widespread.
It has been understood more recently that this study and belief carry racist biases against Asian cuisine. As the poor choice of name may suggest this study was not carried out in a scientifically rigorous manner.

The study lacked proper controls, people in the study were aware of what sample they were ingesting and were asked to describe their symptoms.

Studies that have continued in this path of villainizing MSG suffer the similar issues. Poor sample size, doses significantly higher than regular consumption, and biased participants.

But, in blind studies the vast majority of people, even those who claim to be sensitive do not negatively react to MSG. Not one study has found a verified mechanism of MSG causing harm.

But, as mentioned in the poll a 4/10 Americans hold some of these beliefs and avoid MSG.

In spite of science, prejudice can be hard to overcome. If you catch someone saying they avoid MSG, I encourage you to see if they can explain why.

The Fentanyl fire

Fentanyl was responsible for the most deaths by overdose in British Columbia from 2019-2022. It’s not just our homeless population. Young professionals, our youth, and new parents have all been affected; in short, all those who choose to partake can fall victim.

This is terrifying but hardly surprising when you consider that a dose of only 2milligrams can kill you. 

Fentanyl is a synthetic opioid: a man-made drug with effects similar to that of morphine and heroin. Fentanyl is 50 to a 100 times more potent than morphine and relatively speaking, frighteningly simple to synthesize. It makes sense then that it is used medically as both a pain reliever and sedative. In fact, it is on the WHO’s List of Essential Medicines.

It seems almost trite to remark here that fentanyl, like all drugs, has the potential for abuse. 

Figure 2 shows the percentage of deaths attributed to a number of drugs between 2019-2022. Fentanyl clearly takes the cake here, and it’s not even close. Figure 1 below graphs the total deaths by illicit drugs per year, from 1996 to 2022. A truly disturbing, upward trend.

 

Figure 1: Deaths caused by illicit drugs from 1996 to 2022

Figure 2: Percentage of 2648 deaths in which fentayl and other drugs were found postmortem (Source: Government of Canada)

But why? Why are so many people dying? It’s not like people are purchasing fentanyl in droves. Surely they know how dangerous this is? 

Fentanyl enters Canada in one of three ways: illegal import, illegal manufacture and theft of medical products.

The truth is, there are individuals who recreationally consume fentanyl. They have their methods; such as through transdermal fentanyl patches, lollipops or nasal sprays. These are all relatively safer options, all things considered, as they are all illegally sourced medical products going under brand names such as Actiq®, Duragesic®, and Sublimaze®.

Actiq, a popular orally bio available method of consumption.

These delivery methods first gained popularity in the 90’s, and soon after that, criminal organizations began making fentanyl analogues to avoid identification as an illegal substance. Even more potent than regular old fentanyl, analogues such as carfentanil and 3-methylfentanyl fueled the fire.

Most people are exposed unwittingly. The first illicit pills and laced drugs containing fentanyl and its analogues appeared in the market around 2013, and drug related deaths began to skyrocket at the same time (Figure 1) and a majority of these deaths are attributable to fentanyl (Figure 2).

But what can we do? While fentanyl test strips are certainly progress, there are limitations; false negatives, false positives, and the simple reality that most people probably won’t be bothered. We must first and foremost draw light to how pervasive and serious this problem really is. This should also be dealt with at the root. We must push for working with other countries including China, the US and Mexico to implement stricter drug measures and export regulations.

Drugs aren’t evil. They are neither good or bad, how could they be? But some drugs are worse than others. Much, much worse. We are left with a fire that we must put out while we still can. The good news is we have ways to deal with this. We have science and people who care.

 

 

Missing Capsule of Cesium-137 Sparks Manhunt in Western Australia

Authorities in Western Australia have quite literally found a radioactive needle in a haystack.

Carrying case for radioactive capsules. Source.

On January 12th, a tiny capsule of radioactive cesium-137 from a radiation gauge fell off a transport truck that was on its way from a Rio Tinto mine site to a storage facility in Perth, Western Australia, along a 1400 km stretch of highway in the rural Australian outback.

Due to the radioactive nature of cesium-137, Australia’s Department of Fire and Emergency Services, as well as nuclear scientists quickly launched a desperate search for the tiny capsule, about 8 mm in length. As the search intensified, the public was warned to say at least 5 meters from the radioactive capsule.

Figure 1: The bar chart compares the size of cesium-137 to the size of commonly used Australian coins.

Cesium-137 is a radioactive isotope that is formed from the nuclear fission of uranium-235. Although it is tiny, cesium-137 is very dangerous to the health and wellbeing of anyone who come in contact with it. The radioactive isotope can emit both beta and gamma rays, which can penetrate skin, causing severe radiation burns, sickness, or even death.

Capsule of cesium-137. Source.

With a half-life of about 30.05 years before decaying to barium-137m, a stable and non-radioactive isotope. However, “the cesium inside the capsule will [still] be dangerous [until] the next century.” That is according to Edward Obbard, a nuclear materials engineer with the University of New South Wales.

Miraculously, on February 1st, the radioactive capsule of cesium-137 was found just off the side of the highway around 200 km from the mining site. Authorities quickly cordoned off a 20 meter perimeter and safely contained the capsule inside a lead container.

It is important for companies to be extremely careful when transporting radioactive substances. This incident highlights the need to scrutinize the transport of radioactive substances so that a similar incident will not happen again in the future.

–Raymond Tang

 

Exposing the dark side of the skin-lightening industry

Minnesota Department of Health warns consumers to steer clear from skin-lightening products (SLPs). Their recent investigation on SLPs revealed dangerously high concentrations of unlisted ingredients that can harm users’ health.

 

Skin lightening refers to the practice of lightening complexion by reducing the skin’s natural pigment, melanin. Dermatologists prescribe patients products with low concentrations of active ingredients to treat certain pigmentary conditions and post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation. However, due to potential adverse complications, many countries either banned or strictly regulate these ingredients. 

 

Skin colour has long been the social-economic benchmark in many countries, predominantly in Asia-Pacific, where individuals often affiliate lighter complexions with attractiveness and more career opportunities. A survey of 667 participants revealed that appearing lighter was the most common reported reason for using SLPs, followed by to appear more attractive, regular skincare products, social influences, and others (Table 1).  

Figure 1: Summary of users’ reasons for using SLPs from 667 participants.

These growing demands created the lucrative business of SLPs, which was valued at US$8.8 billion in 2020. 

 

Unsurprisingly, most toxic SLPs remain accessible in local markets and promote on social media. Some go undercover by omitting harmful ingredients or using counterfeit labels. 

Hydroquinone, a potent SL agent for hyperpigmentation treatments, causes permanent blue-black facial discoloration (Figure 1) or skin thinning with high-dosage applications, said Dr. Desai, a board-certified dermatologist at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center.

Figure 2: Discolouration from long-term usage of hydroquinone-containing products. Source: Wikimedia

 

UK-based optometrists recently diagnosed three patients with corneal degeneration. This condition leads to a loss of vision over time, most likely from using hydroquinone-containing products for years, as the patients reported.

Corticosteroid, a widely-used topical steroid for skin inflammation conditions, is also a potent bleaching agent. Steroid-dependent reactions (SDR) are the tell-tale signs of chronic misuse of corticosteroids over an extended period (Figure 2). Rashes, skin sensitivity to sunlight, and infections occur when SDR patients withdraw from topical steroids. 

Figure 3: Steroid-Dependent Reactions. Source: Wikimedia

 

Mercury, another dominating ingredient in unregulated SLPs, inhibits melanin production to reveal a lighter complexion. The well-documented list from Pan American Health Organization on associated risks from mercury poisoning does not look so pretty. 

These risks range from multiple major organ failures – kidney, liver, etc. – to psychological issues – psychosis, depression, anxiety, and early-childhood development issues. 

Moreover, determining factors when assessing a patient’s health on the severity of mercury exposure include the product’s concentration, period of exposure, other compounds changing mercury’s chemical properties, etc. The complex nature of different coexisting factors raises another problem for proper diagnoses, as indicative symptoms of mercury poisoning may not always manifest equally.

While mainly mercury poisoning from SLPs occurs via skin absorption, inhalation of mercury vapours is not off-limit. Simply put, users put not only themselves at risk of mercury poisoning, but also the whole household. 

So how should buyers go on from here?

“Consumers should always check the ingredients of their skin creams, be suspicious of low prices which are likely to indicate the lotion is fake and potentially harmful, and never use a product containing hydroquinone,” said Simon Blackburn, chairman of Local Government Association’s Safer and Stronger Communities.

 

Ashlynn Nguyen

 

 

 

Enzymes – A Solution in the War Against Plastics

It should not be a surprise to people that it can take over 500 years for UV radiation – light from the sun to break down a piece of plastic. But what if there is a faster way to break down single-use plastics?

Researchers at the University of California, Berkeley invented a new way to decompose consumer plastics in a short amount of time, simply with heat, water, and nano-dispersed enzymes.

Plastic waste covering the shoreline. Source

UC Berkeley professor Dr. Ting Xu and her research group  developed a nanoscale enzyme that can eat away at the polymers in plastics. These nanoscale polymer-eating enzymes can be embedded into plastics during manufacturing. The enzymes were wrapped around plastic resin beads. These beads are melted and can be manufactured into single use consumer plastics. To prevent the enzymes from activating when not required, a random heteropolymer (RHP) coating is applied to hold enzymes without restricting the flexibility of tensicity of the plastics.

Xu likened this process to organic composting. By adding water and heat, the RHP polymers is removed and starts eating away the polymers into smaller subunits.

The research conducted by Xu and her group found that the enzymes took about a week to degrade most of the plastics. Polylactic acid (PLA) and polycaprolactone (PCL) based plastics embedded with nanoscale polymer eating enzymes are able to break down the polymer chains into smaller molecules, such as lactic acid.

Plastic cups made from biodegradable plastics. Source

It is clear there is still more research needed in this field. Currently, Xu is developing other modified RHP-wrapped enzymes that can stop the degradation process at specific points in it’s degradation so that the polymers can be recycled into new plastics.

“[Humans] are taking things from the Earth at a faster rate than we return them,” said Xu. “Don’t go back to Earth to mine for these materials, but mine whatever you have, and then convert it to something else.”

As consumers, we can play an important role reducing our consumption on single use plastics and create a more sustainable environment for ourselves and future generations.

 

Raymond Tang