Category Archives: News

SI Units Are Changing, But Will We Have To As Well?

Posted on October 22, 2017 by | 2 comments

The SI units that we know and love today were first published in 1960, but they will be undergoing redefinition in the next few years. But don’t panic just yet!

First, a little history. The International System of Units is the metric system. The abbreviation SI stems from Système international (d’unités) in French. It is based on the metre-kilogram-second (MKS) system of units, in which meters, kilograms, and seconds were the base units.

The SI units are founded on seven base units for seven independent quantities. These units are the meter (m), kilogram (kg), second (s), kelvin (K), mole (mol), ampere (A), and candela (cd). All other units are derived from these seven. For example, the unit of force is a Newton (N), which is equal to 1 m×kg×s-2 in base units.

The SI base units. Depiep: Wikimedia Commons

Metrology is “the science of measurement, embracing both experimental and theoretical determinations at any level of uncertainty”, as defined by the Bureau international des poids et mesures (BIPM).

Changes are made to SI units to ensure stability over the long-term by linking the definitions to invariable constants.

Currently, the kilogram is defined by “the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram”, kept in a vault in Paris. If this sounds vague to you, you’re in agreement with the BIPM and metrologists around the world.

The international prototype of the kilogram is a block of platinum-iridium. However, objects like this one can easily lose or gain atoms or molecules from the surrounding air. In comparison to the prototype, official copies may no longer have the same weight. The prototype has an uncertainty of zero for now, but this is expected to rise.

Official copies of the kilogram are changing. Elizabeth Gibney Nature

SI was designed to be able to evolve as new derivative units are added and old definitions redefined. These changes are discussed at the General Conference on Weights and Measures held by the BIPM. The next conference will be held in Versailles in November 2018.

The latest revision was discussed October 16th-20th 2017 in Paris. In this new system, the base units will be defined in relation to a fundamental physical constant such as the speed of light c or the Planck constant h.

The new, revised SI units. Elizabeth Gibney Nature

These changes won’t affect the way we measure or the measurements we make in our everyday experiments, so we can continue on the way we did before. However, those operating at the absolute highest precision can now rest a little easier.

-May Constabel

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Lignin: using the whole plant

Posted on October 18, 2017 by | 1 comment

 Lignin is one of the most abundant materials on Earth but it is still painfully difficult to work with. Lignin is the name we give to a group of polymers that make plants stiff and somewhat waterproof. It is made of many aromatic groups that could be useful but its structure is so unpredictable that it ends up being an obstacle in processes like biofuel synthesis.

Location of lignin in a primitive plant: Sleaginella
National Science Foundation https://nsf.gov/news/mmg/mmg_disp.jsp?med_id=62375&f

So, the problem with lignin is that we don’t know how it will break down until it has been broken down. Many studies have tried and failed to use oxidation-reduction reactions and electrochemical processes to break lignin down into useful components. The processes are long, complicated, dependant on high temperatures and nothing seems to work well enough.

Researchers at the University of Michigan  published a paper for a one pot, room temperature method to break down lignin. To do so they combined electricity and a relatively common compound for catalysis NHPI. The advantage of this approach is they knew how the NHPI would react with a C-O bond in the pine lignin they studied. The known process told them how the reaction would start and what to expect if it worked. This catalyst is also cheaper than metal catalysts.

Then, they needed to keep the reaction going to prevent a small amount of lignin pieces from reattaching to the larger pieces. To do this, they tested many solvents and used known electrochemical conditions until they found evidence of lignin monomers and dimers (pieces of one or two molecules broken from the lignin polymer).

Polymer-dimer-monomer relation
http://www.webassign.net/question_assets/wertzcams3/ch_13/manual.html

However, all this work was done with very small amounts of material. To make the reaction work at a larger scale they used a modern technique called photocatalysis.

An example of a photocatalysis reaction
https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jnm/2012/624520/fig2/

The team found that lignin was also breaking down at the larger scale and the yield was pretty good for a lignin experiment. The study showed a hopeful future for lignin research and application as well as for electrochemistry and photocatalysis processes.

Isabella Correa

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How does a robin know which way to fly?

Posted on October 2, 2017 by | 1 comment

How does a robin know which way to fly? This has been a scientific puzzle since the 1800s. European robins, Erithacus rubecula, are migratory birds that fly between Southern Europe and North Africa to escape harsh winters. Few wrong turns can easily land them in the coldest winter in Europe yet every year migratory birds fly to warmer places.

European robin. Source: Wikimedia Commons

The Hore group at the University of Oxford proposed that perhaps this biological compass phenomena may be best explained by quantum biology. The principal from a quantum biology perspective is that when photon hits the retina of the bird’s eyes, it excites the electrons in a protein called cryptochrome. These excited electrons then exist in different spatial locations yet influence each other which is an effect known as quantum entanglement. But the challenge is that can a quantum effect really last long enough to contribute to a bird’s navigation?

The researchers used computational methods to study the radical pairs involved which are pairs of bound molecules with an unpaired electron each. They discovered that the ratio of radical pairs that follow the two chemical pathways change when exposed to a magnetic field similar to that of the Earth. Essentially, they are proposing that the birds are converting Earth’s magnetic field by a chemical reaction sensitive to subtle quantum effects.

This research has profound implications in Chemistry as many organic semiconductors, such as OLEDs which are widely used in displays for phones, televisions, computers, etc., show similar magnetic properties as the radical pairs studied here, the research team believes that findings from this study can help develop sustainable and inexpensive electronic devices.

Most Apple products are dependent on OLEDs for their cutting edge display. Source: Maxpixel

The Hore Group did not prove or disprove the quantum biology theory for a biological compass; however, they attacked the puzzle from a unique perspective by showing why it’s possible. This is an important study because this was one of the first credible evidence that nature might be using quantum mechanics to its advantage. These findings have immense implications in Science as it raises the questions: can nature teach us how to build better machines? Can we learn how nature uses and preserves these quantum chemistry effects to develop quantum technologies such as quantum computers, nanochemistry in medical treatment, etc. Physicist Jim Al-Khalili did a TED Talk on how quantum biology might explain life’s biggest questions which further explores the potential scope of this field.

Overall, quantum biology is a coming of age controversial field with limited evidence; It’s new and speculative but I do believe it’s built on solid science.

 

Mia Hasan

Mon, Oct 23

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Moving Toward to Evolution’s Frontier

Posted on October 2, 2017 by | Leave a comment

The current frontier in evolutionary genetics involves discovering how the evolution of new gene function is correlated with animal form diversification. A gene is a section of DNA in an organism that tells the organism what to produce to be able to look and act the way it does.

Understanding how species form throughout evolution can allow us to predict how our world will change in the future. A new technique has been developed that allows scientists to look specifically at genes, helping to broaden our knowledge.

Dna

Figure 1. A section of DNA which contains multiple forms of genes. The CRISPR/cas9 technology will make specific cuts in the DNA to remove individual genes. (Image Source)

The new CRISPR/cas9 method uses a nuclease, an enzyme that can cut DNA, and a synthetic guide RNA, a molecule that specifically binds to DNA. Precise cuts can be made in the genome that allow a particular gene to be deleted, effectively terminating that genes phenotypic expression (what can be observed).

This new technology was a scientific breakthrough that caught a lot of media attention when initially published. There is currently a moral dispute in the media due to the potential of modifying human babies with this technique. Being able to effectively communicate the new advances with this technology is necessary to get grant money to continue the research, and to show its importance to the public.

Recently, there have been several breakthroughs at Cornell University looking at the optix gene in butterflies, a master gene for wing pattern adaptation. The scientists discovered that the gene has different pigmentation and structural colouration functions, depending on the butterfly species.

Zhang et al. stated than until now the developmental function of the optix gene was unclear. By using the new CRISPR/cas9 method, they were able to observe species with this gene turned off. This gave the researchers a clear analysis on how the wings were directly affected by optix.

Figure 2. The Buckeye butterfly with the optix gene still intact. Without it , its wings will turn an iridescent blue. (Image Source)

Zhang et al. found that different species of butterflies had different reactions when the optix gene was turned off. The Junonia genus, including butterflies commonly known as Buckeyes, had their normal orange-brown wings turn iridescent blue when the optix gene was deleted.

Figure 3. The Gulf Fritillary butterfly with the optix gene intact. Without the optix gene, it will undergo melanization which turns its wings black and grey. (Image Source)

 

However, other species of butterflies, like the Gulf fritillary (A. vanillae), had melanin replace their normal pigments, which then produced black and grey colours.

 

 

 

Seeing how this master gene is conserved in butterflies allows scientists to make increasingly accurate predictions of past evolutionary change. They have stepped toward understanding how DNA specifies 3D structure by first looking at a manageable 2D gene form. In the future, Dr. Reed, one of the other scientists on the team, wishes to recreate butterfly wing pattern in different distinctive species.

This deep understanding of the optix gene will provide further knowledge into the evolution of butterfly wing colour adaptation. By understanding more about butterfly evolution, we can better understand evolution as a whole. Each step towards new knowledge provides a better basis for predicting future changes in genetics.

Author: Thryn Irwin

 

 

 

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A Search for Cleaner Water

Posted on October 2, 2017 by | 2 comments

Photo taken from Flickr Commons. Increasing demand for clean drinking water to drink.

As the Earth’s population grows, there is a parallel increase in demand for clean, potable water.

The ability to effectively and efficiently filter water is a problem that many researchers and scientists are trying to solve. Water clean enough for human consumption is free of undesirable chemicals, biological contaminants, and harmful gasses.

To address this growing issue, researchers have been exploring the applications of carbon nanotubes. Analogous to aquaporins, proteins in cells that transport water, these nanotubes are synthetically created to have a higher efficiency of water transport and selectivity for ions and molecules.

Aquaporins: Biological water transporter located in the cell membrane. What researchers are trying to replicate.

The structural feature responsible for the successful transport of water in aquaporins is the narrow, hydrophobic (water fearing) channel which forces water to translocate in a single-file arrangement. Past studies have tried to mimic this structure using a >1 nm diameter, but failed to replicate the effectiveness of aquaporins.

However, new studies done by Tunuguntla et al.  have proven that it is possible to create artificial water channels with increased productivity to the natural protein translocator. They have created carbon nanotubes with diameters approximately 0.8 nm wide. The new nanotube models showed water flux at a rate 6 times higher than aquaporins.

In addition, their experimentation showed a very high ion selectivity. In solutions with a very high salt concentration (NaCl), the nanotubes were still able to transport water. This finding is very promising for the desalination of water. In areas were fresh water is unavailable, application of carbon nanotubes in water purification systems would prove immensely beneficial to communities facing water scarcity.

These findings are especially promising because scientists have created an artificial water channel that rivals biological equivalent.

-Mya Dodd

 

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A Glass of Wine a Day Keeps the Doctor Away?

Posted on September 30, 2017 by | 2 comments

Picture from Google Images

Since the 1990’s scientists have wondered whether red wine has any potential health benefits for the average consumer. Studies have shown that a polyphenol known as resveratrol in the wine does help to reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases, in particular atherosclerosis.

How did scientists know in the first place that red wine could potentially help? It all has to do with the French Paradox. The French paradox looks at how the French have a lower risk of cardiovascular diseases despite consuming a diet that consists mainly of fats. What’s the main difference in these diets from others around the world? They drink a lot of wine.

Studies looking into red wine discovered a polyphenol known as resveratrol. Resveratrol comes from the grapes that make the wine. It was noticed due to its anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Scientists believed that this may have something to do with the health benefits of the wine.

Resveratrol was first tested on mice models by feeding them resveratrol supplements and in the end it showed a decrease in the risk of cardiovascular diseases, specifically atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is when the arteries harden and narrow making it difficult for blood to flow through the body. The question scientists then wondered was how exactly did resveratrol help with this?

Some ways resveratrol helped is by increasing the amount of high density lipoprotein cholesterol, also known as the ‘good’ cholesterol in our body as well as decreasing platelet aggregation. This coupled with its antioxidant abilities made resveratrol a very helpful polyphenol in red wine.

Benefits of Red Wine (From :Saleem, T. S. M. & Basha, S. D. (2010). Red wine: A drink to your heart. J Cardiovasc Dis Res., 1(4), 171-176.)

The research was more recently extended to human trials and similar results were found as was with the mice. However, to this day doctors are hesitant to encourage patients to drink as the consequences from drinking alcohol are too high for the benefits of resveratrol. Non-alcoholic red wine is available with all the benefits of the polyphenol without the worry of the alcohol.

The idea that red wine can help with our health is interesting, however I believe that the risk of alcohol is too great. You can never be sure how much wine is too much and it varies from person to person. To be on the safe side I would recommend other forms of resveratrol supplements other than red wine to help with any cardiovascular problems. However, it is great to know that drinking red wine isn’t all that bad. Thus in conclusion, the polyphenol resveratrol does help to reduce our risk of cardiovascular diseases, so a glass of wine a day, does keep the doctor away!

~Sajni Shah

 

References:

Chiva-Blanch, G., Arranz, S., Lamuela-Raventos, R. M., & Estruch, R. (2013). Effects of Wine, Alcohol and Polyphenols on Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors: Evidences from Human Studies. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 48(3), 270-277.

Gilford, J. M., & Pezutto, J. M. (2011). Wine and Health: A Review. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 62(4), 471-486.

O’Keefe, J. H., Bhatti, S. K., Bajwa, A., Dinicolantonio, J. J., & Lavie, C. J. (2014). Alcohol and Cardiovascular Health: The Dose Makes the Poison…or the Remedy. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 89(3), 382-393.

Smoliga, J. M., Baur, J. A., & Hausenblas, H. A. (2011). Resveratrol and health – A comprehensive review of human clinical trials. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research Mol. Nutr. Food Res., 55(8), 1129-1141.

Saleem, T. S. M. & Basha, S. D. (2010). Red wine: A drink to your heart. J Cardiovasc Dis Res., 1(4), 171-176.

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Extragalactic Attack: Key to the Universe?

Posted on September 25, 2017 by | Leave a comment
Radiation from cosmic rays could severely damage the brains of astronauts.

Radiation from cosmic rays could cause severe brain damage, according to a study on Mars astronauts. Photo Credits: Diana Quach

Cosmic radiation has been linked to Alzheimer’s disease, premature aging, and dementia in astronauts because it damages neurons in the brain. This is extremely concerning for anyone who wants to understand life beyond earth; sending astronauts for long space missions could destroy their lives! For decades, scientists have attempted to combat the impact of intergalactic cosmic radiation on Mars. On September 22nd, a new discovery changed everything.

Scientists recently discovered extragalactic high-energy cosmic rays, which are radiative fragments of atoms that cascade into earth at the speed of light. Scientists previously hypothesized that cosmic rays exist outside our galaxy, but were unable to prove it until now. The Pierre Auger Observatory’s particle detectors revealed that these rare cosmic rays are a million times more powerful than the largest cosmic phenomena in our galaxy. These findings were published in the journal Science as a research article titled Observation of a large-scale anisotropy in the arrival directions of cosmic rays above 8x10e18 eV.

Evidence shows that cosmic rays with large energies originate beyond our galaxy, shown through a flux diagram.

This map of the sky shows the cosmic ray flux, with a cross marking the specific region where scientists observed a pattern of cosmic rays. Photo Credits: The Pierre Auger Collaboration.

The Pierre Auger Collaboration is certain that these high-energy cosmic rays originate outside our galaxy. Although cosmic rays are emitted by the Milky Way, the intergalactic particles cannot contain as much energy as the rays detected.

The blue lines represent magnetic field lines in a black hole that project an extragalactic jet, similar to our galaxy’s magnetic field. Photo Credits: NASA/JPL-Caltech

Extragalactic cosmic rays could contribute to the radiation damage to astronauts since they are so high in energy. Previously, scientists have considered many intergalactic cosmic radiation because there was no proof that extragalactic rays existed. If the cosmic rays’ origin could be found, scientists could isolate particles inside the rays to study their properties.

Unfortunately, it is difficult to locate the source of cosmic rays because they are anisotropic. Their properties changed when they encountered our galaxy’s magnetic field, which made determining the cosmic rays’ extragalactic properties impossible.

In the movie The Martian, the stranded Mark Watney wears a fashionable suit. Photo credits: Aidan Monaghan

So what does all of this mean? If we could source and isolate extragalactic cosmic rays, we could study how radiation damage affects the brain. We could create astronaut suits from materials that would deflect cosmic radiation, so astronauts can spend time on Mars without compromising their health. The groundbreaking discovery of extragalactic cosmic rays takes us one step closer to understanding the universe.

Jessica Shi

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