Notas y mapas

Hedge, T., (2003)  “Learner autonomy and learner training”. (Chapter from a book)

During the last decade the concern for modeling an autonomous language learner has increased in SLA research and in educational thinking. Hedge states that the two key terms that encompass many practices associated to self-directed learning are learner autonomy and learner training (p.77). The former refers to what the student does to learn a language; the latter refer to what the teacher does to help students to learn by themselves.

What the student can do or can learn to do in order to learn a language has been categorized in several types of learner strategies such as, cognitive and metacognitive strategies (“what learners do to learn and do to regulate their learning” (Rubin, 1987, p.19, quoted by Hedge, p. 77)), communication strategies (what learners do “to maintain a conversation, despite the gaps in their knowledge of the second language”) and socio-affective strategies, “those which provide learners with opportunities for practice” (p.79).

On the other hand, what the teacher does “to encourage the belief that a learner can assume more responsibility” (p.86), that is, learner training, offers increased effectiveness in classroom learning, self-access learning, and independent learning at home (p.85).

Because this book is addressed to teachers, it offers several samples of activities to develop in class in order to encourage students to reflect on their learning. Hedge presents questionnaires about writing activities and learning styles, self-assessment grids, also a model for a reading journal, and a self-evaluation form for a listening activity, among other materials.

In short, Hedge has reduced to manageable terms the complex classification of strategies, and reinforced the view that the role of the language teacher involves more than transmission and assessment of knowledge about a language.

Wenden, A. (1999)  “An introduction to Metacognitive Knowledge and Beliefs in Language Learning: beyond the basics”. (Journal article)

This article is the introduction to the issue 27 of the journal Systems, devoted to metacognitive knowledge and learning beliefs. Thus, it presents definitions related to these topics, and summarizes key points of the articles gathered in the issue. It reports some of what could be the last research achievements about these topics in the 1990s.

The first conceptual explanation is about the field of study. Wenden clarifies that metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive strategies are the two components of metacognition. Metacognitive knowledge refers to the learner’s acquired information about language learning, and it includes learner’s beliefs about how to learn a language as a subcategory. Metacognitive strategies are “general skills through which learners manage, direct, regulate and guide their learning” (p. 436).

Wenden emphasizes the important role of metacognitive knowledge in autonomous or self-directed language learning, especially in the two phases of self-regulation: task analysis and monitoring of one’s own progress. Learners have knowledge or beliefs that during task analysis help them to 1) identify the nature of the problem; 2) relate the task with previous experiences, and 3) determine the approach (aspects of the language and personal skills to be used) to do the task. In monitoring, that knowledge or beliefs help learners to assess the reasons for problems encountered and to make decisions to solve them (p.437).

Wenden presents the innovations in the works included in the issue. Two main shifts are revealed regarding the methodology to study the content of metacognitive knowledge and learning beliefs. In the past, researchers tended to use case studies and cross-sectional surveys to document the content of the knowledge and beliefs. The research reported in the journal offers different approaches. White uses a longitudinal study with cycles (change of instruments) of data collection during 12 weeks, in order to investigate the evolution of learner’s expectations. Meanwhile, Sakui and Gaies run an empirical verification of the reliability of structured questionnaires.

As for the content of metacognitive knowledge and beliefs, the analysis reported deal with aspects like: a) culture as a variable that determines learning beliefs differences between groups (Horwitz), b) learning settings and individual characteristics as variables that determine learning beliefs differences inside a group (Horwitz), c) hierarchy in the content of the knowledge and learning beliefs reported by learners (Benson & Lor), d) quantitative and qualitative approach to learning (Benson & Lor), e) distinction between range, complexity and appropriateness of knowledge (Victori); and f) the two dimensions (metacognitive and motivational) of the beliefs in terms of their function in learning (Yang).

The influence of metacognitive knowledge and beliefs on the learning process is addressed too. Cotterall identifies two trends of beliefs: ones associated to “autonomy-favoring behavior” and others viewed as dysfunctional for autonomy (p.439). Yang relates self-efficacy beliefs to the use of various kinds of learning strategies, and beliefs about the nature and value of spoken English to formal oral-practice strategies; and suggests that the “relationship between beliefs and strategy use should be viewed as cyclical rather than uni-directional” (p.440).

Finally, a list of issues that remain to be studied includes: 1) more development about the influence of culture on learner’s beliefs and knowledge; 2) the influence of settings (formal education or self-directed learning) on beliefs; 3) individual characteristics that influence beliefs differences; and 4) the metacognitive knowledge that intervene in the regulation of learning tasks oriented to enhance communication skills (reading, writing, listening and speaking) (p.441).

From this article, we can conclude that three contributions of the research on metacognitive knowledge and learner’s beliefs by the end of the century were: a) to point to the dynamic nature of knowledge and beliefs; b) to show both the positive and the negative impact that they have on language learning; and c) the attention to the unsuccessful learner in the study of these topics.

Harris, M., (1997) “Self-assessment of language learning in formal settings.” (Journal article)

This paper focuses on one learning strategy associated to autonomous learning: self-assessment. Harris argues that this strategy needs to be incorporated systematically into formal educational settings at secondary and post-secondary level. He also suggests models of self-assessment questionnaires to be used in a language class.

In diagnosing language learning in formal education, Harris points out that the language classes are compulsory, and the learning objectives are pre-set. These conditions are associated with passive learning. Moreover, some students may assume that memorization and reproduction are the only skills expected in the language classroom, as they are in other disciplines. These students have a restricted view of language learning.

According to the author, self-assessment is the key strategy to help students to become active learners and open their view about language learning. Students require an initial self-assessment of their knowledge, and monitoring their own progress on a regular basis. This is why Harris proposes that self-assessment should be included in all the classes, at the end of each activity.

Harris provides three examples of questionnaires to apply in class in different stages of the course. An initial self-assessment is aimed to determine what the students can do in the target language (p.14). A second example of questionnaire asks students to evaluate a listening activity in terms of their performance and difficulties of the task (p.16). The last example asks the students to consider what aspects of their work should be taken into account for marking in a writing assignment (p.16).

In Harris’s view, self-assessment can help the students to 1) locate their strengths and weaknesses; 2) think about what needs to be done to obtain good grades; 3) focus in their own learning; 4) realize that learning languages is different from studying other disciplines; 5) see their progress in personal terms and 6) see the value of what they are learning.