Photography: Impact and Change

Posted on October 29, 2012 by adi

I chose to present my assignment in the format attached, in an attempt to simulate a hypertext. I would have loved to use a Mind Map, but struggled to find free software that would suffice. You can either read the text in linear form by forwarding the slides in the Power Point show, or you can click on whatever section you want on the first slide. Should you choose to read the context as a hypertext, please open the presentation and navigate around it by clicking on the headings on the first slide, or on the underlined hyperlinks. Some of these hyperlinks will direct you to videos or web sites that may take you outside of the presentation, so you may need to re-open it again. Other hyperlinks will direct you within the Power Point presentation; in order to navigate back to the first slide click ‘HOME’, or to return to the slide you were directed from, click ‘BACK’. The hyperlinks do not work on an iPad, so it is best to view this presentation on a PC or Mac.

Presentation:Research-Paper.A.delPaso.cr

Thanks,

Adriana

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Early Print Culture in South Asia

Posted on October 29, 2012 by awhetter

Hi everyone,

Please take a look at my web essay on the Early Print Culture of South Asia at https://sites.google.com/site/awhetteretec340no3/

Thanks, Arlene

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The End of an Era: From Silent Film to Talkies

Posted on October 28, 2012 by sheza

The End of an Era: From Silent Film to Talkies

By Sheza Naqi

 The transition from silent film to the “talkies” in the mid 1920s transformed the face of the American film industry and of mass entertainment. “Going to the picture show” was a wondrous experience that for 25 cents, gave Americans in large cities an escape from their tedious lives and offered an evening of “crystal chandeliers, marble fountains, gilt inlay and richly upholstered seats” (Miller n.d.). They went to enjoy the “silent” film, which is not an entirely accurate statement considering that all silent films were accompanied by live music, and were therefore not silent at all. Full symphonic orchestras accompanied some silent films, while others had sound effects added by organ, and smaller movie houses used the piano to add sound. Without dialogue, the actors had only body language and expression to tell the story. As an intensely visual medium, the silent film was accessible to all audiences and in areas where there were large immigrant populations and English was not the first language, the intertitles would be translated into Yiddish, Russian or Italian as the live music accompanied the film (Miller n.d.). Thus, the silent film negotiated a space for illiterates.

In his book, The Talkies: American Cinema’s Transition to Sound 1926-1931, Donald Crafton identifies a change in audience tastes as one reason that pushed Hollywood to modify its traditional silent film practices (Crafton 1999). Audiences described their first experience with the new sound technology of the Vitaphone as “great”, “more real” and “miraculous” (Crafton 1999). The Vitaphone, endorsed by Warner Brothers was used to make the first half-silent, half-talking musical, The Jazz Singer in 1927, which was met with great success. The Vitaphone technology recorded sound on a separate wax disc that the projectionist then had to synchronize with the film (Miller n.d.).

Crafton attempts to debunk the legend that it was a swift and abrupt revolution in American cinema that came about as a result of the talkies. “The transition was years in the making and in the finishing… the motion picture industry did not turn topsy-turvy because of the talkies. No studios closed on account of the coming of sound: most increased their profits” (Crafton 1999). He uses research conducted by historians in the 1970s and 1980s to explain the changes in Hollywood in the 1920s and 1930s as deliberate and rational rather than confusing and speared by hotheadedness (Crafton 1999).  The transition was spurred by the dominant studios’ needs to respond to the physical expansion and experimentation with sound technology by the competitors Warner and Fox (Crafton 1999). The response from the industry unfolded in three stages leading to an eventual transition from silent film to talkies: Invention, Innovation and Diffusion (Crafton 1999). “Invention” covers the period up to 1925 when the synch-sound apparatus was in its developmental stages until Warner Brothers picked it up as the Vitaphone. The “Innovation” phase can be understood as the time when all of the studios experimented with the various methods of applying sound (i.e. hybrid films, musicals) until 1928 when the majors made a conscious commitment to go forward with sound technology. “Diffusion” describes the release of talkies nationally and internationally as well as the wiring of theatres for the new sound technology (Crafton 1999).

Despite how neatly packaged this three phase transition may sound it was not so smooth. Crafton’s book opens with a critique of the 1952 musical Singing in the Rain, which looks at this transition period in cinema with whimsy, portraying it as a romanticized event in the history of film. In Singing in the Rain, the Jazz Singer opens as the first talkie and the studio easily wires its stages for sound and the film is shown across the country despite the fact that most theatres would not have been able to accommodate sound. The film also follows a director as he shoots his first talkie with the same ease as the old silent film (Crafton 1999). But the transition was not executed with such grace and not everyone welcomed the new technology with open arms.

While many moviegoers had initially been excited by the idea of hearing their favourite actors’ voices, they were disappointed when the image of the actor and the voice did not match their preconceptions. This came to be known as “Talkie Terror” amongst long-time silent film stars whose careers ended along with the silent film era as a result of this phenomenon (Doyle 2010). In the December 1929 issue of Photoplay, an influential magazine in the film industry, the cover read “The Microphone – The Terror of the Studios” with another tagline, “You Can’t Get Away With It In Hollywood” (Doyle 2010). The issue dealt with the introduction of the new sound technology as it created a division between Old and New Hollywood. An actor had to be more than just beautiful to thrive in New Hollywood; so the new talkies starred stage actors who had more experience with dialogue (Doyle 2010). Many actors left their film careers due to voice issues due to the new technology, including Colleen Moore, Gloria Swanson, Douglas Fairbanks and Mary Pickford, and others were pushed out by studios using their voice as an excuse to demote or fire them (Doyle 2010). The silent-to-sound transition did not only affect the stars; it ushered in a new breed of directors who had experience working in theatre and thus had a better understanding of the power of voice; it gave great importance to newly-hired, all-powerful sound technicians who shushed the Old Hollywood directors as they shouted orders to actors on set; and cameramen found themselves cramped in soundproof booths that did not allow for the same fluidity that silent films were loved for (Doyle 2010).

During this transitional phase, Hollywood produced several hybrid films like The Jazz Singer, which were both silent and had dialogue. The studios also experimented with sound on film by adding only music and sound effects using the new technology. Another hybrid version that came to exist was a process called “goat glanding” where existing silent films were re-mastered with sound effects and dialogue in some key scenes (Miller n.d.). Another way that studios ensured their success while they gambled with the new sound technology was to continue to release silent versions of their talkies. This was a tactic to ensure box office sales, and ideal for smaller movie houses that had not yet been wired for sound (Miller 2010). When the last silent film was finally made, not only did the art of the silent film die but it also marked the end of the art of intertitle writing. Musicians who had played accompaniment to silent films also found themselves out of work and replaced by what the American Federation of Musicians referred to as “canned music” (Miller n.d.).

The musical, Footlight Parade released in October 1933, starts with a declarative farewell to the silent film era: an electric billboard announcing the death of the silent film (Miller n.d.). The six-year transition period is an indication that silent films did not go silently. The 2011 release of the Academy Award winner The Artist, a French silent film about Hollywood, has brought silent-cinema back into the spotlight and, at the same Academy Awards, Martin Scorsese was nominated for Hugo, a film that celebrates the beginnings of French silent film. The silent-cinema era is certainly not forgotten and judging by the popularity of the recent Academy Award winners, perhaps it will even enjoy a revival. As Crafton says of the transition from silent films to talkies, “It was a complicated and messy business, owing in no small part to the vicissitudes of mass audiences” (Crafton 1999).

 

References:

Crafton, Donald. (1999). The Talkies: American Cinema’s Transition to Sound, 1926-1931. California: University of California Press.

Doyle, Jack. (2010). “Talkie Terror, 1928-1930.” PopHistoryDig.com. Accessed October 20, 2012. Retrieved online from http://www.pophistorydig.com/?p=7281

Miller, Francesca E. (n.d.) “Silents to Talkies.” FrancescaMiller.com. Accessed October 20, 2012. Retrieved online from http://francescamiller.com/talkies.html

 

 

 

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The Rise of Newspapers and the Penny Press

Posted on October 28, 2012 by Johanne Brochu

             Johann Gutenberg, inventor of Europe’s first printing press in the 1450’s, unexpectedly created a demand for knowledge and news.  Impressively, over 50 years after his invention, “an estimated 500,000 books were in circulation, printed on about 1,000 presses across the continent” (Nelson, 1998, p. 1).  His invention caused a revolution made by repeated advances in technology that have freed the information exchange into the mass population.  Thus, information exchange through new forms of communication has made the acquisition of knowledge more accessible. 

            Therefore, the print media, since the 18th century has become essential for people to connect with their environment.  Newspapers occupied an important role in informing the lower social class that had been left behind since the commercialization of printed books. 

 Print Media and Literacy: Societal Developments

 A Need for Order and Standards

            Through the 18th century, due to economic prosperity, people had more time to read, so it affected the book business and generated a need for “order and standards”  (Sutton, 1997, p. 37).  Manifestly, it was a time where printing was growing and consequently “written English became standardized” (Sutton, p. 43).  Despite the interest for knowledge and standards, all information remained objective.    

            With the 19th century emanated two major developments: “the rise of popular partisan politics and the appearance of a market economy” which meant for newspapers “politicization and commercialization” (Nerone, 1987, p. 377).  At the time, papers were political; journals with respectability had to have the consent of politicians and pecuniary help of political parties prior to establishing themselves.  Indeed, they had to respect some formal standards as the papers were directed to a certain audience.

The Apparition of the Penny Press

            In the middle of the 19th century, the penny press, low-priced newspapers, which mainly covered news stories of crime and adventure, made its apparition in the East coast.  Penny press papers “revolutionized content by declaring their independence from political parties and concentrating on news rather than opinion” (Nerone, 1987, p. 378).  The most important innovation of the penny press was its price; thus, it provided access to a larger audience of readers, indeed to the lower class.  According to Nerone (1987), “by concentrating on news, it is argued, the penny press performed a function that conventional papers had ignored: it presented a picture of ordinary social life” (p. 380).  For the first time, a newspaper was reflecting the simple life and activities of the middle class society. 

            The penny press’ journalists quickly realized that the type of news the upper class was interested in was different from the lower class.  Therefore, publishers progressively added to the penny press newspapers novelties including new sensationalism.  They were using human stories, observation and interviews, to provide realism to the stories.  Even though Nerone (1987) stated that “the development of American journalism is more properly understood as an evolutionary development rooted in shifts in social and cultural environment” (p. 377), the rise of penny saver, due to cheap cost and its way of treating information, seems to have indorsed the development of the modern newspaper.

Neutrality and Objectivity in Journalism

            Furthermore, one of the most famous penny newspaper, The New York Daily Times, created in 1851, later changed to The New York Times, has made its trademark at keeping neutrality when developing a story, so the audience could debate with objectivity over its content; opinions were determined without being influenced by one side or the other.  The objectivity in journalism was later adopted by future newspapers. 

            Ultimately, the quality of The New York Times made it very popular and it rapidly reached a large audience.  Nerone (1987) argued that “the strategies–editorial, political, and commercial–adopted by penny press operators were responses to changes in specific environments rather than discoveries of fundamental human truths (e.g., the people want news, not opinions) or of new principles (e.g., political independence)” (p. 377).  Finally, it is clear that innovations in penny papers’ structures and techniques are part of evolution changes coming from society.

Development of Technologies in the Printing Press

            The penny press promoted the development of technologies such as “the steam press and the telegraph” (Nerone, 1987, p. 382), which allowed news to spread faster to a larger audiences (Turner, 1998).  Thus, it opened the door for innovative ideas in the evolution of technology in the printing press.

            In earlier times, print media were more favourable to the people living in cities because of costs of information and transportation.  Therefore, adopting printing press meant to utilize the proper and most recent technologies and have the mechanical and intellectual skills to run them.  In addition, the diffusion of printing press necessitated the availability of the paper which was most rare at this time (Dittmar, 2011). 

            Later on, before the 1950s and the advent of television, operators in newspapers were using Linotype machines, invented by Otto Mergenthaler in 1884, to type “by hand, a letter at a time” which was making the composing room “noisy, dirty and overheated”   (Southwick, 2004, p. 1).   However, the new invention allowed newspapers to have more than eight pages, an evolution at the time.  Interestingly, “it took a few generations for printers to realize that they could create a new writing space with thinner letters, fewer abbreviations, and less ink” (Bolter, 2001, p. 8).  

Popularization and Freedom of the Information

            After the development of newspapers with topics reaching the interest of all classes of society, information suddenly became free and accessible to all.  It clearly provided people new interests and openness to opportunities. 

            While discussing the effects of mass printing, Sutton (1997) stated, “by making many more texts available, an increasing number of ideas and options were opened up to the readers.  Moreover, no single text could have as dominating an influence as a single manuscript could.” (p. 33).  Since readers have to individually interpret the texts they are reading, since they are left without the possibility of interacting directly with the writer like they would have orally, it allows diverse interpretations possible, making it harder for the reader to find the ‘real’ truth.  Ong (2002) suggested that “oral communication unites people in groups.  Writing and reading are solitary activities that throw the psyche back on itself.” (p. 68).  Indeed, the freedom of the information is positive but at the same time it may allow ambiguities to increase as the reader debates the author’s meaning in a given text.    

Implications for Literacy and Education

             Ong (2002) stated that “print reinforces the sense of language as essentially textual.  The printed text, not the written text, is the text in its fullest, paradigmatic form.” (p. 128).  In order to decode a printed text in its entirety, readers must be literate.  Thus, minimal skills are necessary to render a person literate; “by 1952, six years of school was considered the minimal literacy threshold” (Scribner, 1984, p. 4).  If we consider that literacy “is a social achievement” where a writing system is in place and individuals are participating in socially organized activities with written language (Scriber, p. 2), it is safe to say that the penny press, in particular, “solidified its role as public educator” (Turner, 1998, p. 44).

            The mass distribution of penny press advanced the progress toward mass literacy by making available, at low cost to all readers, information in the form of printed texts that people from diverse social classes can read, discuss, and debate.  McLuhan (as cited in Turner, 1998, p. 55) stated that this type of paper also built communities.  Moreover, the new medium of transmitting information allowed discussion within people and became a vehicle to initiate different reforms; ideas spread effectively, quickly and widely.  For instance, unconsciously, Pulitzer, a Jewish Austrian American newspaper editor at World, brought the concept “of the newspaper as agent of social reform” (Turner, p. 46).  The fact that Pulitzer encouraged the journalists to use a simple language that everyone could understand played a strong part in literacy rates in New York; “it also helped solidify a democratic consciousness in its readers” (Turner, p. 48).

            Clearly, some newspapers like the World have demonstrated that they were not only acting as an agent on culture, but also as a product of that culture.

Conclusion

             The power of the writing press is real when it comes to shaping public opinion.  In the past, literacy was kept as a tool to maintain “hegemony of elites and dominant classes in certain societies, while laying the basis for increased social and political participation in others” (Scribner, 1984, p. 4).  Therefore, with the onset of printed press and the emergence of newspapers, we assisted the divulgation of information that was previously kept secret.  From these new media of mass communication might come what Ong (2002) called ‘the literate minds’ where decisions are “shared among writers and readers” in the way it can be used to communicate (Bolter, 2001, p. 17).  People are no longer isolated with their own thoughts; knowledge and information shared together with communities of people may expand in directions unknown to a single perspective.  

References

Bolter, J. D. (2001). Writing space: Computers, hypertext, and the remediation of print [2nd edition]. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Brazeal. D. K. (2005). Precursor to modern media hype: The 1830s penny press. The Journal of American Culture, 28(4), 405-414. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=f59313d7-f199-4774-bf6b-91f66274806d%40sessionmgr4&vid=2&hid=11

Dittmar, J. E. (2011). Information technology and economic change: The impact of the printing press. The Quaterly Journal of Economics, 126, 1133-1172. doi:10.1093/qje/qjr035.

“Johan Gutenberg”. (n.d.) In English Bible History. Retrieved from www.greatste.com/timeline-english-bible-history/gutenberg.html

Nelson. H. (1998, February 11). Gutenberg’s Press Started a Revolution. The Washington Post. Retrieved from

Nerone, J. C. (1987). The Mythology of the Penny Press. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 87(4), 376-404. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=68dd4da9-ade6-467c-8175-fb6645982605%40sessionmgr10&vid=2&hid=11

Ong, W. J. (2002). Orality and literacy: the technologizing of the word. London: Routledge.  

Scribner, S. (1984). Literacy in Three Metaphors. American Journal of Education, 93(21). Retrieved from http://eserver.org/courses/spring97/76100o/readings/scribner

Southwick, A. B. (2004, October 17). Newspaper evolution: Hot lead to cool computers. Sunday Telegram. Retrieved from http://www.lexisnexis.com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/hottopics/lnacademic/?verb=sr&csi=155406&sr=HLEAD%28Newspaper+evolution%29+and+date+is+October+17%2C+2004

Sutton, I. S. (1997). The impact of the printing press on literary criticism in the eighteenth century and its relevance to the internet. [Master of Arts from the University of Houston Clear Lake]. (UMI number 387999). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/docview/304417727

Turner, D. L. (1998). From Classes to Masses. A comparative Study of the Penny Press and Public Journalism. [Master of Arts from the Faculty of Information and Media Studies at the University of Western Ontario. Graduate School of Journalism]. Retrieved from http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/tape15/PQDD_0005/MQ30703.pdf

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Hornbooks: Most Popular iPad App of the 15th Century

Posted on October 28, 2012 by jenniferschubertubc

Origins

The hornbook often presented English children, and subsequently Colonial American children, with their first encounter with letters and words. Because parchment was a scarce material, and thus expensive, the origins of reading and literacy (the alphabet) was printed upon a single piece, along with simple combinations of vowels and consonants and finally a copy of the Lord’s Prayer in its entirety and placed upon a wooden paddle. To protect the fragility of the hand printed document, the parchment was sealed under a layer of cow’s horn. The process to prepare the horn for use was lengthy, involving soaking the horn in cold water for several days to separate it from the bone, boiling it in water, placing it directly in fire and pressing it between metal plates to transform it into a smooth, translucent piece which was then fastened upon the wood with brass strips and iron tacks. The small paddles often had a hole on one end which a string of leather or twine would be passed through, allowing the hornbook to be tied to its owner and making it portable.

As with many instruments of learning and technology, different variations were made available. Oak hornbooks were the least expensive and accessible to almost everyone. More intricate versions of the hornbook would go on to be created of silver, ivory or bone and were often etched or engraved upon directly. The type of hornbook a student carried could have been viewed as a symbol of wealth or privilege, as different versions of electronic gadgets can be seen today.

Silver Hornbook

Religious Influences

What could be identified as the earliest reading primers evolved out of the teachings of the church and were comprised fully of religious content that was limited and determined by the authority of the church. (Huey, p. 242) Religion and instruction were inseparable at the time, the simplest of lessons, such as basic literacy skills being learned alongside religious verses and parables. “Alphabet and creed became united in one book which became the forerunner on the one hand of the book of Common Prayer, and on the other of the modern school primer.” (Reeder, p. 10) Oral recitation began to intermix with the textual biblical studies. Though the church, in the same vein as primarily oral cultures, feared what advancements in technology would mean to the basis and standards of their beliefs, literacy remained a sought after quality. Ong goes on to describe those who subsequently resist literacy, even in primarily oral cultures, as those who are “mostly soon lost sight of”. (Ong, p. 171)

The hornbook was a ready, at-hand reminder of the simplest of lessons, but also a reminder that God was a constant presence. A small, red cross was almost always included in the upper left hand corner of the hornbook. Students were to ask God to bless them as they reviewed and studied their lessons; the final section of the hornbook remained The Lord’s Prayer, offered up as a routine closing. As colonists moved away from the reign of the church of England, the red cross faded from American hornbooks as primers began to move to include secular teachings.

The Role of Play

The role of play in education was explored as far back as 68 A.D. The Roman rhetorician Quintilian believed that children learned best through play and suggested the first incarnation of what we know today as alphabet blocks, claiming that the best way to learn the alphabet was to give children “blocks and tablets containing the letters to play with.” (Huey, p. 241) It was thought that children who had strongly interacted with objects of educational value would learn and retain information at a much higher rate of success than those who learned through strictly rote methods.

Hornbooks were often used both in lessons and at play. Perhaps the most popular form of hornbook amongst children was one that was made entirely from gingerbread with icing creating the traditionally written portion. Children would get to eat each letter as it was learned. German educational reformist Johann Bernhard Basedow, a large proponent of learning literacy through play, went as far as stating that each school should have a dedicated baker.  “The children must have breakfast, and it is not necessary for any child to eat the alphabet more than three weeks. The cost of shaping the dough into letters is less than one-half penny daily for each child. The acquisition is entirely worth so much and is possible even to the poor children.” (Huey, p. 242) It would appear that school budgets have always been a cause for concern, regardless of time or choice of materials.

Gingerbread Hornbook

Advancement

Though the hornbook was in use from the middle of the fifteenth century through to the 1800s, the primers it was used alongside with went through quite a bit of change. Once strictly comprised of religious material, primers began to expand to include secular material when adopted by Protestant educators. The A B C book by Schulte, first published in 1532 presented letters with pictures and through rhymes, appealing to children’s interests. (Huey, p. 243)

The New England Primer, a mainstay in Colonial schools, was primarily a church text but included spelling lists, rhymes, prayers and moral lessons. It could be found in every home, alongside the Bible. It eventually declined in popularity, giving rise to the spelling-book, a text that was a combination of speller, primer, alphabet and reader that often included various subjects. Webster’s Spelling Book was first published in 1783 and by 1889 1,200,000 copies were sold annually. (Huey, p. 248)

Children carried hornbooks as small reminders of simple lessons. Colonial American children went on to develop their own versions of handbooks through other mediums. It was not uncommon to find the alphabet, along with favourite rhymes, popular sayings of the time, prayers and other familiar verse stitched in thread upon linen. These personalized versions of handbooks were known as samplers, and by creating them, children were no longer simply reading and reciting simple lessons, but actively creating the content they would later review themselves.

Comparisons

It may be considered a stretch to call electronic devices such as Android phones and iPads the hornbooks of today, but a simple browse through the app store could prove interesting in this regard. In the Apple App Store alone, there are well over 1000 apps listed as a result of searching the term “alphabet.” The apps range in technological advancement from a simple backlit, hornbook-like printed alphabet to fully interactive, animated alphabetical characters who move around the screen to match the swipe of a finger with accompanying music. The basic sentiment of a handheld device existing to help students to remember their alphabet and learn the basics of reading remains the same though the technology has allowed the presentation to become, in some cases, vastly different.

Looking to the Future

It would be interesting to conduct a study on how different alphabet apps, from the very simple visual “hornbook style” to the highly interactive, impact early readers. The increasing affordability and availability of smartphones and e-readers to younger users along with the advancements in app design and content will make it increasingly harder to test children in an untainted state. Some may even argue that the written alphabet, which can still be found strewn across the tops of classrooms the world over, will eventually become obsolete. Of course, the same has been said about brick and mortar libraries.

Reflection

As with many other forms of advancement, tradition is something that will always be reflected upon when considering full abandonment. In the case of the hornbook, the end of the nineteenth century saw the rise in illustrated tri-fold booklets. Historian Andrew Tuer wrote, “In its later days, the humble hornbook was treated with the full measure of contempt lavished on a thing which has served its purpose. ‘Destroy and forget,’ said everybody, and alas! Everybody did.” (Tuer, p. 6) Perhaps if Andrew Tuer opened a simple alphabet app on a smartphone today, he would be pleasantly surprised at what he might find.

 

References

Bookmaking with kids: For the love of reading, writing & art. (2008, Aug 25). Hands-on history of books: Hornbooks. Retrieved from http://www.bookmakingwithkids.com/?p=716.

Huey, E.B. (1913). The psychology and pedagogy of reading. New York, NY: The Macmillan Company.

Ong, W.J. (1988). Orality and literacy. New York, NY: Routledge.

Reeder, R.R. (1900). Historical development of school readers and of method in teaching reading. Columbia University Contributions to Philosophy, Psychology, and Education. 8 (2). 92.

Tuer, A.W. (1897). History of the horn-book. London: Leadenhall Press.

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From Town Criers to Newsprint: The Evolution of Early Newspapers in England

Posted on October 28, 2012 by jjmh

Theory behind the emergence of the newspaper

At the dawn of the 17th century, early newspapers began to replace oral news by manufacturing natural events to fit a single page. Bolter (2001) would refer to this shift in communication as the “remediation” or replacement of one medium for another more innovative technology. Prior to scheduled news distribution, people exercised more of their own judgement over what they heard, passing information on to others orally. In contrast, daily printed news became more about national viewpoints regarding politics, economy and culture that aim to centralize the British political system (Williams, p.7). McLuhan (1964) and Ong (2002) agree that writing has the power to restructure the human consciousness, meaning that British citizens were being conditioned to believe specific opinions that were approved by the government. American president, Thomas Jefferson (1787) also recognized the power of print in his quote: “were it left to me to decide whether we should have a government without newspapers, or newspapers without a government, I should not hesitate a moment to prefer the latter.” Even today, it is not uncommon to think of the news as being a realistic account of history but we should not be fooled, journalists are talented in the art of sculpting the reader’s perspective. Barber (n.d.) refers to written news is merely the occurrences that catch the attention of journalists on one particular day.

Historical foundations

Before written news was available, people exchanged knowledge orally. Messengers spread news about the victories and tragedy of war and Town Criers roamed village streets publicizing births, deaths, marriages and divorces (Stephens, 1998). Written news was first distributed in the form of a one-paged pamphlet. In the early years news pamphlets exposed facets of news that could be applied universally to later forms of print news. The first news pamphlets competed with ballads and found their niche in the printing enterprise by sensationalizing news to ensure people would purchase them. News writers sensationalized their writing style by using attractive headlines and promising intimate details to attract readership (Streckfuss, p.89).

The first publishers – a word that was first used to describe news writers, editors, etc… – waited for suitable news to appear, confirming its importance by reproducing it in written form. A more passive approach to circulating news continued due to the expenses involved in printing news (Streckfuss, p.90). Bolter (2001) explains that “each culture and each period has had its own complex economy of writing,” and as newsprint gained economic importance, the formerly submissive newsgathering techniques would soon change. Despite financial restrictions, news writers aspired to speed up the production of newsprint. Publishers understood the need to print news before the competitor, often cherishing news regarding war because the topic of war increased news sales and acted as a way to accelerate news production.

The transition from publisher and corrector to journalist and editor prompted a consideration for the reader. “The news in the pamphlets was meant to confirm existing values, to let readers share their hatred against common enemies, to pride themselves on British accomplishments and to have reinforced their world view” (Streckfuss, p. 93). For early pamphlets in England, news was written for a particular group of Anglican anti-Catholic merchants, artisans and members of trade. At this point, the press was not tied to the church or the state and was still relatively free from authoritative restrictions (Streckfuss, p. 94).

Early newsbooks and ballads could not be considered newspaper as they were often only printed once. The first successful English newspaper surfaced in 1621. Publishers of the first weekly newspapers struggled to fill the pages with fresh and relevant news. The printing press brought about a more rigorous and consistent publication schedule; first adapting to the pace of a weekly schedule and later to a daily schedule. This shift highlights the economic pressure imposed by the rapid pace of the printing press. The oldest existing newspaper, printed in England was first published on September 24, 1621 and titled “Corante, or weekely, newes from Italy, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Bohemia, France and the Low Countreys.” News articles found in early newspapers were not necessarily altered from their original form. An editor by the name of Thomas Gainsford made attempts to create a system that reworked original news items into reader friendly stories (Stephens, 1998).

Prior to the Civil War in England from 1642–1651, most countries were carefully monitoring print news. In Europe, publishers were only permitted to print if they did not discuss local or national politics. Following the Civil War, national news gained new importance and under the unstable leadership from the parliament of England, the first English newspaper made attempts to challenge royal authority by reporting uncensored national news. When Oliver Cromwell established his authority in 1653, he stiffened newspaper regulations by permitting only a small number of newspapers to be printed. The freedom of the English press emerged once again after the failure of the Licensing Act of 1695 (Stephens, 1998). At this point, English citizens were starting to value the right to public opinion, freedom of speech and ultimately, freedom of the press.

Towards the beginning of the 18th century, regular published newspapers started to have an important role in commerce by advertising and chronicling market reports. The first profitable daily newspaper in England was the Daily Courant in 1702. During the Eighteenth century, England saw newspapers become filled with social and political commentary that was accessible to working class citizens.

Colonial Newspapers

Newspapers in the American colonies emerged much later due to a smaller populace and more stringent government regulations. As in England, penny newspapers also existed in America. The major difference between American and English penny papers was that because England “lived outside the law,” English papers were more extreme in their political commentaries (Stephens, 1998).

The Publick Occurrences, which is considered the first American newspaper was issued without authority and abruptly suppressed due to its political content. In 1704, the Boston NewsLetter became the first profitable newspaper, guided by John Campbell (Sloan, 2005). Around the time of the Revolutionary War in 1775–1783, dozens of newspapers were distributed among all of the colonies. Information that emerged from these newspaper articles greatly influenced American political opinion to fight for political independence from England (Barber, n.d.).

As an independent nation, America newspaper circulation continued to boom and was used to circulate national affairs to all of the colonies. The Bill of Rights in 1791 secured the freedom of press and by the 1814, 346 American newspapers existed. The advancements in printing technology allowed for the materialization of the “Penny Press” which sold for less than a cent (Barber, n.d.). The accessibility of low-cost reading materials significantly impacted literacy and thus democracy in America.

Concluding remarks

Since its emergence in the 17th century, the newspaper has taken over 400 years to develop its written form (Williams, p.4). Written language strengthened the reliability of news and improved literacy through the public’s desire to be informed. Although not consider a newspaper, the first written news in Europe was said to begin the process of formalizing language (Stephens, 1998). The history of the newspapers was primarily established in Great Britain, as the British were keen to be involved in sharing national politics and social matters. The geographical size and concentration of population in England also played a part in ensuring the success of the British press. As a relatively small country, with the majority of the population living in or adjacent to the nation’s capital, newsprint could be easily distributed to the masses (William, p.6). In contrast to written history, newspapers became a public platform for questioning, rejecting and resolving public matters. The elite were no longer the only people with access to information. The British press voiced public opinion; functioning as a way to access current news and bring people together through shared political and moral perspectives.

References:

Bolter, J. D. (2001). Writing space: computers, hypertext, and the remediation of print (2nd ed.). Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

McLuhan, M. (1964). Understanding media; the extensions of man, ([1st ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Newspaper History. (n.d.). Phil Barber’s Historic Newspaper Shop. Retrieved October 15, 2012, from http://www.historicpages.com/nprhist.htm

Ong, W. J. (2002). Orality and Literacy. Cornwall: Routledge.

Sloan, D. (2005). John Campbell and the Boston News-Letter. Early America Review , VI (1).

Stephens, M. (1998). History of Newspapers For Collier’s Encyclopedia. New York University. Retrieved October 16, 2012 from http://www.nyu.edu/classes/stephens/Collier’s%20page.htm

Streckfuss, Richard. (1998). News Before Newspapers. J&MC Quarterly, V75 (1).

Williams, K. (2010). Read all about it!: a history of the British newspaper. London: Routledge.

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Braille: Moving the Blind Community from Oral to Literate

Posted on October 28, 2012 by leemail

Braille/Inclusão

Pre-Braille Environment

The 1800’s were a time characterized by rapid industrialization and growth started by the Industrial Revolution. The social changes during this time were various and widespread, influencing aspects of life including art, religion and politics. The changes were not always positive, as society passed through sophomoric phases while dealing with new concepts and situations.

This period saw several prominent shifts; one being the move of individuals from artisan to worker. Whereas an artisan was seen as a skilled craftsman, the worker was considered a part of larger system or machine designed to manufacture products. Secondly, there was a shift to urbanization as workers moved in from rural farming societies.

These large changes influenced secondary changes. The increase in consumable goods and disposable income encouraged materialism. Urbanization, along with an overall increase in free time, allowed for the communication and sharing of ideas, including the spreading of philosophical and political ideals. One such idea taking shape at the time was that of eugenics; the idea that human genetics could be improved by the selection of contributors to the gene pool. Although the qualities which were perceived as improvements may be contested, race and hereditary conditions were often considered.

These factors combined to create a complicated environment for individuals with physical or mental challenges. Though socialism was on the rise, the disabilities of those with challenges were more prominently considered than their abilities. As society became more of a machine, the potential for an individual to take part in the machine determined their value and role in that society.

Introduction of Braille

It was in this environment that Braille was introduced as a method of reading and writing for blind persons. Braille is named after its creator, Louis Braille, who was blinded in a workshop accident at the age of three.

Prior to the creation of Braille, blind persons communicated predominantly through speech. Some attempts had been made to use large embossed or raised type for written pieces, but these proved to be too slow or inaccurate for practical use. Aside from this, blind persons would be required to rely on sighted individuals for assistance.

Braille was built upon an existing concept called “night writing” which was developed in order for French soldiers to be able to communicate at night without light. Braille condensed the unsuccessful night writing system to be legible with one finger, overcoming one of its primary hurdles.

The system is made up of a series of raised dots in six possible positions to correlate with a letter of the alphabet, blends, numbers, punctuation symbols, contractions or abbreviations. Differing Grade levels exist within Braille, as well as differences which exist between languages.

To add to the complexity created under the umbrella of Braille, there were additional systems being developed as improvements such as New York Point and Boston Line Type. This inconsistency in approaches led to a slow adoption of Braille as it lacked the universal acceptance required to create necessary resources.

An additional complication existed in that educators of blind persons were often not blind themselves. From their perspective, Braille presented new methods which strayed from the mainstream without adding any value which sighted individuals could easily perceive.

Impact of Braille on the Blind Population

It was not until 1932, over 100 years after the creation of Braille, that a uniform Braille code was adopted by English speaking countries. This slow adoption muddies the attribution of Braille’s effects on the blind population. Comparative statistics on jumps in employability or independent living from the 1800’s fail to exist.

More recent research does exist regarding the effects of Braille literacy on employment and income. When comparing visually impaired individuals who were educated in Braille versus print, 49% of Braille respondents received some form of social assistance, whereas 74% of those educated in print were beneficiaries of such assistance. (Ryles, 1996)

However, Braille offers apparent benefits to the blind population. First and foremost it affords a method of attaining literacy designed to address the needs of the specific audience. The benefits of literacy can then be generalized to this situation. In the time before conveniently recorded sound, this literacy allowed for communication across time and space, and between individuals who never had to meet.

The introduction of Braille was the attainable introduction of the possibility of written culture to the blind population. With this came the characteristics of written culture, including abstract thought and the freedom to encourage intellectual experimentation. (Ong, 2002)

In comparison to other printed alternatives available to blind persons at the time, Braille allowed for a degree of fluency which was not possible otherwise. Reading was impeded by the speed at which embossed letters could be distinguished, while writing would require the use of movable print. Unprinted alternatives would require assistance from others and would only require oral participation from the blind person.

Technological alternatives to Braille are often credited with some of the decline in Braille literacy from 50% in the 1960’s to 10% today. (Pagan, 2010) However, technological alternatives are often audio based, such as audio-books or text-to-speech software. In comparison to these, Braille offers the convenience of the codex system, allowing for quick referencing of information. In addition, it continues to make the characteristics of a written culture available, rather than being restricted to an oral culture.

Conclusion

The key benefit of Braille literacy is independence. Whereas people with disabilities during the Industrial Revolution were often devalued for their inability to take an active role in the production machine, Braille allowed blind persons one step of independence closer to full participation.

Today, it removes literacy barriers from the blind, enabling them to independently read and write, and gather and disseminate information. Without Braille, the blind community would become predominantly an oral culture, taking on the characteristics of such. With the current abundance of information, and the need for abstract concepts and intellectual experimentation, providing the possibility of a literate culture provides the necessary tools for the blind community to participate in modern society self sufficiently.

References

Irwin, R. B. (1976). The war of the dots. New York: American Foundation for the Blind. Retrieved October 14, 2012 from http://www.afb.org/warofthedots/book.asp

Ong, W. J. (1982). Orality and literacy: the technologizing of the word. London: Methuen.

Pagan, D. (2010, January 21). U of C prof researches decline of Braille. The Gauntlet. Retrieved October 16, 2012 from http://www.thegauntlet.ca/story/u-c-prof-researches-decline-braille

Ryles, R. R. (1996). The Impact of Braille Reading Skills on Employment, Income, Education, and Reading Habits. Journal Of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 90(3), 219-26.

Spungin, S. J. (1996). Braille and Beyond: Braille Literacy in a Larger Context. Journal Of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 90(3), 271-74.

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Comic Books – Connecting Us to Cultural Change

Posted on October 28, 2012 by kymfrancis

Introduction
Comic books are a form of sequential art, using a combination of illustrations and text to tell a story.  These stories are influenced by the cultural concerns of the time, and change as society changes.

But this isn’t a new idea.  Humans have been story telling through sequential art for 40,000 years.  Paleolithic cave paintings are the first examples and can be traced back 40,000 years.  Sequential art also appears in Egyptian hieroglyphics, ancient Greek and Roman structures, medieval broadsheets, and the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel (Hayman and Pratt, 2005).  What separates comic books from these examples of sequential art is the addition of text.  Comic books weave slang, idioms, mood, tone and connections to current cultural and political events into the story telling (“A History of the Comic Book,” n.d.).

Historical and Cultural Relevance

Comic books owe their existence to comic strips, which were initially produced as a means to draw readers to the Sunday newspaper in the late nineteenth century.  “Yellow Kid”, created by Richard Outcault in 1895, is frequently cited as the first comic strip.  It wasn’t until 1933 that Eastern Color Press found a way to utilize frequently idle printing equipment to publish an 8 page comic section, resulting in the first comic book. “Funnies on Parade” proved there was a viable market for repackaged comic strips.  In 1935, National Periodicals published “New Fun Comics”, the first comic book to use entirely new content.

In 1938, Harry Donenfeld published Action Comics, which included the debut of Superman, the work of Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster. This resulted in a literary boom; superhero comic books frequently outsold major publications like Time and Newsweek.  When the World War II began, comic books joined the war effort, fighting America’s villains; Captain America entered the comic book scene in March 1941, punching Adolf Hitler in the jaw (“A History of the Comic Book,” n.d.).  Comic books encouraged contribution to war bonds and stamps, actively distorted views of culture and race, and celebrated racist depictions and jingoes that would not be stomached today (“TheTruth About Wartime Propaganda in Comics,” 2012).

After the war ended, superheroes ran out of authentic cultural villains to fight, and sales began to decline. Some blame this drop on censorship law and public outcry; Reader’s Digest was just one publication to release an article holding comic books responsible for the troubles facing American youth[i]. However, it can be argued that the comic book industry was more impacted by the popularity of television and rising conservative societal values.  In an attempt to transform with their audience, publishers changed their tactics and true crime, westerns, and horror comic books were published.

Comic books were impacted by societal change again in the 1960s and 1970s.  To meet the needs of a new generation and stay relevant, modern societal issues such as sex and drugs were featured in comic books. In the 1980s and 1990s, a national paper shortage and increased production costs led to a significant increase in comic book prices.  Additionally, societal changes impacted the superheroes within, antiheroes and a darker tone and mood were introduced (“A History of the Comic Book,” n.d.).

After decades of struggling, partly at the fault of changing technology, fewer comics were selling than any other time in their history.  But a connection to film and video games launched comic book characters into the forefront of mass media in the 2000s.  Tabachnick (2007) describes this technological transition as a way to combine strengths, benefitting from the visual impact of the big screen while maintaining the depth and subtlety of the original text. Comic books continue to reflect societal changes caused by the events of 9/11 and modern conflicts. Most notably, a 2002 edition of Spider-Man focused on the events of 9/11 and drew a larger audience than ever before. Sommers (2012) explains this phenomenon:

Audience members around the world empathized with the character, and with each other, even more than they had when the initial events of 9/11 occurred.  Spider-Man became a catalyzing agent, a shared sympathy, between disparate peoples.  The totalizing effects of 9/11 collapsed the spheres of public and personal trauma into a shared experience; one not limited by national boundaries but, within its immediate time/space, a global event. (p. 190)

Tabachnick (2007) argues that serious comic books resonate with readers today because we seem to be living in a comic book world ourselves.  We have seen that our world can quickly change, proving to be different than we first anticipated, quickly moving from monotonous reality to fantasy in the blink of an eye.

Connection to Literacy
Comic books remain popular today because of the strong relationship with film and media.  This relationship can be connected to academic skills, not only to teach content but also to support literacy skills, communication skills, critical thinking, and motivate students beyond what other text formats are capable of (Bitz, 2004;Rapp, 2012).  Students can explore literacy and find connection to their own worlds when they read and write comic books.  Bitz (2004) found in his Comic Book Project that teachers and students demonstrated deeper understanding of the writing process.

The mass appeal of comic books stems from their ability to provide a space to be filled with the reader’s imagination and empathy.  Hogan (2009) outlines McLuhan’s belief that comic books are a cool medium, one that provides less information to encourage audience participation.  The reader can empathize with the hero, and this makes comic books the perfect tool to connect humanity and technology.

Comic book comprehension involves the active integration of both text and images. In order to understand what is being read, the reader must identify the letters and sounds that create words, understand grammar, and determine the message being conveyed.  Beyond breaking down the words and sentences, the reader needs to draw inferences beyond what is stated in the text.  Additionally, readers seek meaning in word balloons, narration boxes, and visual depictions.  Readers learn to find the differences between comic book feature, such as what the shapes of particular word balloons means, how speed lines show motion, and how panels communicate a larger story (Rapp, 2012).

Critical thinking skills are developed through interacting with comic books, as story lines extend across multiple volumes.  In order to understand these events, students must predict how the plot will advance (Rapp, 2012).  Studies show that comic book reading builds literacy; children are highly motivated to read comic books, and increased voluntary free reading leads to improved reading comprehension.  Comic book reading also supports English language learners as the free reading provides an opportunity for “increasing one’s competence without the risk of making errors in public”  (Cho et al., 2005).

Educational Implications
Comic books are not a piece of pop culture to be overlooked by scholars and educators.  Contrary to this belief, they are valuable tools that provide insight into society.  In fact, they act as means to tell mature stories of great depth. “Analyzing the superhero is the perfect means of analyzing the culture.  The superhero is such an asset in sociological research because the hero provides a record of the values prized by a society” (Hogan, 2009, p. 200).

Comic books are effective tools in teaching current events and history, due to their close connection with societal and cultural change. Comic books have been used to persuade Americans to support war efforts, and Aiken (2010) articulates that war efforts were also bolstered with propaganda posters, films, and news footage, and encourages the use of comic books to discuss the impact of war propaganda on society.  Comic books also function as a literary link to societal issues such as poverty, racism, pollution, gender stereotypes, and political corruption (Aiken, 2010).  For this reason, they can support student learning in the areas of injustice, intolerance, and social justice (Schwarz, 2010).

Aiken (2010) also describes the prolific use of media and technology in classroom as a potential distraction from learning.  Despite this potential for distraction, comic books establish a common ground, which is an important element of effective teaching.  Lastly, comic books can be effectively utilized to foster student’s comprehension of the classics (Rapp, 2012) and engage students in relevant social issues, while teaching “critical thinking, respect for diverse voices, empathy for fellow humans, regard for social justice, and even the incentive to work towards a different and better society” (Schwarz, 2010).

References

A History of the Comic Book. (n.d.). Random History and Word Origins for the Curious Mind. Retrieved October 19, 2012, from http://www.randomhistory.com/1-50/033comic.html

Aiken, K. (2010). Superhero History: Using Comic Books to Teach U.S. History. American Historians Magazine of History, 24(2), 41-47.

Bitz, M. (2004). The Comic Book Project: Forging Alternative Pathways to Literacy. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 47(7), 574-586.

Bitz, M. (2004). The Comic Book Project: The Lives of Urban Youth. Art Education, 57(2), 33-39.

Cho, G., Choi, H., & Krashen, S. (2005). How Comic Books Made an Impossible Situation Less Difficult. Knowledge Quest, 33(4), 32-34.

Comic Art & Graffix Gallery Virtual Museum© History of Comic Art. (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2012, from http://www.comic-art.com/history.htm

Hayman, G., & Pratt, H. J. (2005). What Are Comics. Aesthetics: A Reader in Philosophy of the Arts, 410-424.

Hogan, J. (2009). The Comic Book as Symbolic Environment: The Case of Iron Man. ETC.: A Review of General Semantics, 66(2), 199-214.

McCloud, S. (1993). In Understanding comics: The invisible art. Northampton, MA: Kitchen Sink Press.

Rapp, D. (2011). Comic books’ latest plot twist: Enhancing literacy instruction. Phi Delta Kappan, 93(4), 64-67.

Schwarz, G. (2010). Graphic Novels, New Literacies, and Good Old Social Justice. The Alan Review, 37(3), 71-75.

Sommers, J. M. (2012). The Traumatic Revision of Marvel’s Spider-Man: From 1960s Dime-Store Comic Book to Post-9/11 Moody Motion Picture Franchise. Children’s Literature Association Quarterly, 37(2), 188-209.

Tabachnick, S. (2007). A Comic-Book World. World Literature Today, 81(2), 24-28.

The Truth About Wartime Propaganda in Comics | inspirationfeed.com. (2012, February 24). Inspirationfeed – be inspired!. Retrieved October 20, 2012, from http://inspirationfeed.com/articles/design-articles/the-truth-about-wartime-propaganda-in-comics/

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

[i] Reader’s Digest published several articles describing the negative impact of comic books on child behavior.  Fredric Wertham’s “The Comics . . . Very funny!” in August 1948 and “Comic Books – Blueprints for Delinquency!” in May 1954, and T.E. Murphy’s “The Face of Violence” in November 1954.  They were not the only publications to focus on anti-comic book arguments; others include Parent’s Magazine, Family Circle, Newsweek, and The New Yorker.

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Anatomy: Advanced by Printmaking?

Posted on October 28, 2012 by ddubien

Hi there,

Here is a link to a capzle I made: Anatomy: Advanced by Printmaking?

For each of the images, you can click on “show details” to see a larger version and captions, which are referenced in the text sections, plus image attributions. Don’t forget to scroll down in the text windows or else you will miss some content. There are links to a few YouTube videos that are a few minutes long which really help to understand printmaking processes. However, if you are limited in how much time you have to explore media, I suggest that, at the least, you click on the links to the MOMA interactives (in the sections describing printmaking techniques) and the links to the anatomy books to see beautiful illustrations (in the sections describing the anatomists).

Cheers!

Danielle

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The Telephone: Brining Orality Back with Speed & Over Distance

Posted on October 28, 2012 by kstackhouse

The Telephone: Bringing Orality Back with Speed & Over Distance

Bell using the Telephone in New York

Having married into a family that started and still owns an independent telephone company in Ontario, The Westport Telephone Company (WTC Communications), the concept of the telephone and its impact on society is fascinating.  While attending university having worked for both WTC and for NBTel (now Bell Aliant) the impact of the telephone on society has always been of interest.

In today’s communication environment of Bridgit, Skype, Facetime, and smartphones it is clear to see how the telephone has impacted communication.  Society has become dependent on the instant communication and the access to those on the other end. It is easy to forget that before the telephone, communication over a distance relied on the written word.

The Telephone’s Impact

According to the article, The Invention that Changed the World (“Clear Lines”, Clear Creek Mutual Telephone Company cooperative’s newsletter, July 1996) the word telephone comes from the Greek root words meaning “far speaking”.   The term was in use before Bell’s patented telephone of 1876.   The invention of the telephone provided a new form of communication.  Immediate conversations over distance became a reality.  This meant that news could be shared personally and instantly over a great distance through a networked society.

Photo by Steve Linster. Public Domain License.

The telephone was not initially seen to have much potential as referenced by the Elon University School of Communications (Past Predictions about the Future of the Telephone (1996), “President Rutherford B. Hayes to Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 on viewing the telephone for the first time: “That’s an amazing invention, but who would ever want to use one of them?”  Many thought that the telephone was a fascinating experiment or toy but not something that would become commonplace.  Of course now we can see how valuable the telephone has become in business and in our personal lives. 

With letter correspondence, courier, and newspaper the speed of written communication continued to grow.  During the era before the telephone the telegraph was the fastest way to communicate over distance.   Before that “information traveled no faster than a horse or a sailing ship; afterwards it moved at the speed of light (Nye, 1997, p. 1073).  While there was an incredible increase in the speed of communication the use of the telegraph still contained a delay where the sender had to wait for a written response from the other individual (Burke, 2005).  According to Burke (2005) the telegraph was not in direct competition with the mail service and letter writing.  The telegraph required filling out the message and relying on the operator to send the message.  A letter written at home was much more convenient than sending a telegram.  Also, since the telegram was costlier than a letter messages were kept short, while letters could be much longer.

By the time the telephone became commonplace and costs were reasonable, the telephone quickly replaced the telegram and the written letter for communication in business and personal use.  Burke (2005) does argue that the letter does allow for a record of the communication that the telephone (unrecorded) does not.  This lack of permanence is similar to conversations in oral societies described by Ong (1982).

Secondary Orality:

Ong (1982) notes a return to a ‘communal sense’, which through the telephone creates a renewed sense of the present similar to previous oral cultures.   Having left the present moment and the hear-and-now that was common in oral cultures with the use of print there was a loss of immediacy that oral cultures experienced.  The telephone and other technologies have created a return to immediacy back in communication, what Ong (1982) referred to as “the age of ‘secondary orality’ (p. 133).  This ‘secondary orality’ while bringing audiences together also increases the size of the groups (Ong, 1982, p. 134).

Space & Time:

Marshall McLuhan’s (1960) work and study of print noted that the typewriter cannot “keep pace with the acceleration of information movement created by the telephone and electronic media” (p. 567).  McLuhan (1960) goes on to say that this leads to decentralized workspaces that can be attributed to telecommunications.  According to Nye (1997) telecommunication has “annihilated space and time” (p. 1082).  This refers to the instantaneous communication available via the telephone and telegraph.  People are no longer cut off from those across a distance.  They can participate in synchronous communication without being physically present.   Nye (1997) recognized that the telephone was not only used for information and business.  It is also a tool for sharing emotions, at times individuals may chose to do so over the phone rather than by visiting. These conversations would be quicker than a visit.  The telephone helped to create and bring a network of people together, but not in person.  Nye (1997) indicated “the telephone was used to mitigate loss of contact caused by increasing demands on people’s time” (p. 1085).  The telephone changed work and business practices.  As users became more familiar with the device it was important to learn how to use the telephone effectively.   The directory below contains tips on telephone etiquette.  It should be noted that similar lessons are now given on the proper use of email and social media.

Conclusion:

While there is a nostalgic feeling and excitement when receiving a letter in the mail it is often not as efficient as a phone call.  Letters can be very personal in nature, but they are not the same as actually hearing the voice of the person on the other end.  A phone call can create the same emotional responses as a receiving a letter, when we hear it ring we might be excited or nervous.  We may be pleasantly surprised to hear an old friend’s voice or the laughter of a child.  These experiences cannot be replicated in a letter.

Letters have been used to study the history, culture, science and politics of many cultures.  While this has been the tradition it would seem that fewer people are writing letters as often as they did just a century ago.  With the creation of the telephone and newer technologies it is likely that blogs, tweets, wall postings and videos will be what is left behind for future generations to study.  As an example of this, the video below, “Far Speaking” is a look into the past.  In the future it is likely that one might see videos like this mixed together showing vlogs, blogs, and videos of our lives rather than a collection of our personal letters.

[youtube]http://youtu.be/TX0vAQkMyOY[/youtube]

“Far Speaking” a look at the history of the Telephone, licensed under Creative Commons.

 

References:

Burke, K. (2005). Letter Writing in America [Online]. Smithsonian National Postal Museum. Retrieved October 15, 2012 from:http://www.postalmuseum.si.edu/letterwriting/letterwritingthreats.html

McLuhan, M. (1960). Effects of the Improvements of Communication Media The Journal of Economic History , Vol. 20, No. 4 (Dec., 1960), pp. 566-575 Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Economic History Association Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2114396

Nye, D. (1997). Shaping Communication Networks: Telegraph, Telephone, Computer. Social Research, Vol. 64, No. 3, Technology and the rest of culture (FALL 1997), pp. 1067-1091. Published by: The New School Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40971199

Ong, Walter (1982). Orality and Literacy: The technologizing of the word. London: Methuen.

Online resources:

Clear Lines (July 1996) The invention that changed the world. Clear Creek Mutual Telephone Company newsletter [Online]. Retrieved October 1, 2012 from http://www.audiouk.com/vintage/telephone.htm

Elon University School of Communications (nd.). Imagining the Internet A History    and Forecast: 1870s-1940s-Telephone. Retrieved September 27, 2012 from http://www.elon.edu/e-web/predictions/150/1870.xhtml

Southern Bell Telephone and Telegraph Company (1899). http://archive.org/stream/southernbelltele1899sout#page/n1/mode/2up

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBTel

http://smarttech.com/bridgit

http://www.apple.com/ios/facetime/

http://www.americaslibrary.gov/jb/recon/jb_recon_telephone_1_e.html

http://www.bellaliant.net/

http://www.skype.com/intl/en-us/home

www.wtccommunications.ca/about-wtc

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TX0vAQkMyOY&feature=related

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