The Power of Images & Digital Media

Posted on November 11, 2012 by jkotler

In the late 19th to early 20th century, when new forms of capitalism were on the rise, so too were competitive efforts by various producers to instill a common desire for its goods and services among the public. As this advertising trend continued, the need to maintain a competitive advantage became more widespread and in turn meant finding new strategies to achieve that goal. From that, what ensued was a renegotiation between the use of verbal and visual elements, which led to the increase in creative attempts to use different styles and images instead of a greater textual reliance (Bolter, 2011).

Since then, the development of images over text has only grown stronger with the advent of technology, the World Wide Web and digital media. Moreover, whereas these trends may have once mainly been the case within certain fields, today it is representative of every profession in society with media saturated on television, websites and street billboards as well as at malls, restaurants, schools and even in public transportation (Parkinson, 2012). In fact, the public has become so bombarded with advertisements, news updates and other marketing messages that “in 2007, the writer David Foster Wallace coined a more ominous name for this modern condition: ‘total noise’, created by ‘the tsunami of available fact, context, and perspective” (Gleick, 2011, p. 30). Consequently, it comes as no surprise that many people have come to learn how to quickly sort the over abundance of information from what is and is not intriguing to them. However, while these efforts do create setbacks for those producers, it has also translated into an even stronger drive to find new innovative methods of reaching their target market, such as through attractive visual and digital media. Thus, it can be said that one of the main reasons for the rise in power of visual communication is from a greater need for immediacy so as to capture the public’s attention at the expense of the printed word.

Long before the advertising epidemic and information age, visual communication had already been deemed highly meaningful because, as Lapp et al. emphasize, it has the innate ability to grab the viewers interest and elicit a response by promptly and effectively communicating a messages, regardless of the particular form (Bamford, 2003). Moreover, even though written text does also have the capacity to appeal to a reader, the fact is it cannot be done in the same short time frame therefore making its use potentially less successful. Among other things, what makes this realization so substantial is that the more technological communication continues to rapidly develop, the more people require information to be delivered just as swiftly (Bramford, 2003). To better exemplify the reasoning behind this, in the words of Detavio Samuals, EVP and Director of Client Services at a leading advertising agency called GlobalHue, “the need for publishers to get to the point quicker than ever came about as humans became more pressed for time and content became more finite. For publishers, it was evolve or risk losing their audience, and the only thing shorter than a tweet or post is a picture” (Walter, 2012, para. 6).

For some time now producers have been adhering to the public’s reliance on the instantaneous distribution of information by focusing on the nature of the visual, but recently this job has become that much easier since most things can be found online. As such, various interactive digital media techniques have come to be expected since it can provide a more authentic experience for its viewers in a manner written words simply cannot. More specifically, communication messages that utilize visual imaging in addition to audio, video, and multimedia are now being applied to create online newspapers, magazines and business profiles as well as to an endless number of other web pages because of the large influence it bears (Bolter, 2011). Evidence of this is the sizeable amounts of money wealthy government sectors and profitable companies spend on creating such messages like how “the United States Military spent $598 million in 2003 on advertising to increase ‘brand identity’ and meet their annual recruitment goals. Nike spent $269 million in 2001 on its image to sell their products…and Pepsi budgeted over $1 billion in 2001 on its image” (Parkinson, 2012, para. 20). As such, it is quite clear that the use of images and visual media has not only become popularized but commonplace because unlike with text, it truly has the capability to creatively and immediately meet the desires of its audience.

Since the use of visual communication has become dominant over text, it is that much more important for prose to compete in order to stay relevant. In doing so, as Bolter (2011) points out, attempts to ‘speak the language’ of that media, both on and offline, are more obviously being made. Some of the strategies employed in that endeavor are to increase the presence of pictorial writing or pure textual imagery within other media messages (Bolter, 2011). Yet even though the many great efforts made have not gone unnoticed, the reality is the existence of prose will never disappear but it will most likely continue to be marginalized; at least as long as the impact and power of visual imagery, in all its forms remains in control.

Bamford,A. (2003). The visual literacy white paper. In Adobe, Retrieved October 24, 2012, from http://www.adobe.com/au/solutions/white-papers/education-k12.html

Bolter, J.D. (2011). Writing space: computers, hypertext, and the remediation of print (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.

Gleick, J. (2011). Drowning, surfing and surviving. New Scientist, 210(2806), 30-31.

Parkinson, M. (2012). The power of visual communication. In Billion Dollar Graphics, Retrieved October 24, 2012, from http://www.billiondollargraphics.com/infographics.html

Walter, E. (2012). The rise of visual social media. In Fast Company, Retrieved October 24, 2012, from http://www.fastcompany.com/3000794/rise-visual-social-media

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Electronic writing

Posted on November 10, 2012 by Rocky Lam

The text processor transforms in how we think of writing. Helm (1987) contends that through electronic text, language can be edited, stored, manipulated, and rearranged in ways that make typewriters obsolete (pp. 1-2). The mechanization of the word, popularized by Gutenberg in the fifteenth century through the iconic printing press and typewriter, becomes replaced by word processors in the twentieth century. In fact, there are elements in which the two technologies remediate each other, refashioning an older medium into a new one (Bolter, 2001). Electronic writing remains to be mechanical and precise, like printing, while maintaining a visual aspect, like hieroglyphics and picture writing in papyruses. However, the fixity and permanence of typewriters has evolved to become more fluid and dynamic on computers. The foundation of writing is the basis of literacy. Although the purpose of writing remains the same, where students work towards creating, editing and sharing meaningful writing, but how educators approach this purpose has evolved through digital writing.

Rethinking Writing Pedagogy

The remediation of print to an electronic space has significant changes in how we think, read and write in our digital era. Bolter’s (2001) idea of the fluidity of electronic text changes the spatial structure in how we digest information. With a click of a button, enormous amounts of text can be copied, cut or pasted. We can manipulate text and break down the traditional mind mapping necessary in traditional writing. The physical barriers of the codex, manuscript, are broken by the endless digital writing space (Bolter, 2001). Writing is now open and public. Students can share their ideas, plan for projects by working collaboratively on GoogleDocs, editing and creating documents together at the same time. Peers and teachers can view what others are doing in the class on reflective blogs, commenting on each other’s work and how they could improve. Malley (2010) contends that composing in multiple modes, such as using cinematic techniques, to rework and create media leads to deeper learning. Students are provided with endless opportunities to focus on shooting screens, sequencing, tonality, transition through the use of storytelling tools to reinvent their traditional writing. Through this process, students can then use this writing for publication. Sharing it on Facebook, or Youtube to create more purpose for their writing and allow a larger audience to view their work. This idea is supported by Ong’s (1982) theory of secondary orality, in creating a strong group sense in our global village, it expands writing beyond the four walls of the classroom.

Practicalities of Digital Writing

The implementation of word processing can support the writing process in class, from drafting, writing, revising, proofreading to publishing. Students can write their ideas on a digital space, generating and accumulating their ideas, instead of sequentially writing down sentences. Dobson and Willinsky (2009) promote this idea, where word processing leads to greater length of composition, with slight gains in the equality of writing. In fact, electronic print make writing less tedious for low ability learners, giving them an opportunity to organize their ideas more effectively and combine their work after (Dalton & Hannafin, 1987). Furthermore, differentiation can be achieved through word processing as lower ability students can write more simple sentences, and higher ability students can compose paragraphs using higher ended vocabulary and grammatical structure in the class. Beck and Fetherston (2003) furthers this idea by implementing the use of word processor in a Year 3 Writing Program. They discovered that word processors allowed students to become more willing in taking risks in their writing, having less worry to being varying sentence structures, word choices and text organization. In this sense, writing in a digital space can increase student motivation and attitude towards literacy.

The Economies of Technology

All technologies have fixed and variable costs. Writing with paper and pencils has low fixed and variable costs, where supplies are cheap and easily replenished. In implementing Macbooks to facilitate digital writing for students, Puryear (1999) suggests that the variable costs of individual laptops for students, with the purchase and maintenance costs, and also cost of teacher training, is not necessary cost effective at the end. Large amounts of money are spent on more expensive and complex technologies, but research fails to support the idea that it produces better educational outcomes (Puryear, 1999). Although what we teach has not been radically different, how we teach has changed over the past few decades. There are many obstacles in adopting new educational technology, where the political and institutional framework needs to support the innovation for it to sustain. Dalton and Hannafin (1987) indicates learners who receive no formal typing instructions spend an excessive amount of time to search for the right key on the keyboard. The disruption in their concentration while attempting to write prevents students to let out all of their ideas. Continual teacher training on how to implement technologies successfully, and thus, to then train students to use the keyboard is critical for digital writing to be successful. Although there are benefits to using word processor to make writing more meaningful, we need to consider how much it costs and how that impacts school budgeting and funding to make it successful.

Conclusion

Our understanding of the word has been revolutionized since the introduction of computer. Students no longer require a desk, paper and pen, but only a keyboard and digital space to record our accumulation of ideas and thoughts on an endless page. This new order of information and appearance changes how we view writing, where we can create, edit and share our contents with the global world. As Bolter (2001) defines topographic space on the internet, this iconic space remediates how writing can be done through a digital space, becoming a part in how we organize information in modern day. Our ability to share with the world brings us closer together as a culture, celebrating diversity and our love to write. The word processor has truly been a technological invention that redefines our dependence on our literate culture and the existence of writing.

References

Beck, N. & Fetherston T. (2003). The Effects of Incorporation a Word Processor Into a Year Three Writing Program. Information Technology in Childhood Educational Annual, (1), 139-161.

Bolter, Jay David. (2001). Writing space: Computers, hypertext, and the remediation of print [2nd edition]. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Dalton, D. & Hannafin, M. (1987). The Effects of Word Processing on Written Composition. The Journal of Educational Research, 80(6), 338-342.

Dobson, T., & Willinsky J. (2009).  Digital Literacy. (OlsonD., TorranceN., Ed.).Cambridge Handbook on Literacy. http://pkp.sfu.ca/files/Digital%20Literacy.pdf

Malley, J. [NatlWritingProject]. (2010, September 29). Teaching Writing in the Digital Age. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O9z71iNrlew

Ong, Walter. (1982.) Orality and literacy: The technologizing of the word. London: Methuen.

Puryear, J. M. (1999, September). The economics of educational technology. TechKnowLogia, 46-49.

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Learning Through Hypertext

Posted on November 10, 2012 by troos

In his article, As We May Think, Vannevar Bush (1945) responds to the (at that time) current state of information storage and retrieval stating, “The human mind does not work that way.  It operates by association.  With one item in its grasp, it snaps instantly to the next that is suggested by the association of thoughts, in accordance with some intricate web of trails carried by the cells of the brain.” (Section 6, para. 2)  In the context of hypertext, Bolter (2001) adds to Bush’s thought when he says, “…hypertext reflects the nature of the human mind itself – that because we think associatively, not linearly, hypertext allows us to write as we think.” (p. 42)  These ideas made me think that, if there is a connection between hypertext and thinking, there must also be a connection between hypertext and learning.

The learning theory that seems to align most closely with the use and usefulness of hypertext in learning is constructivism.  Burbules and Callister (1996) put it this way, “This process of actively selecting and assimilating new information in light of personally coherent cognitive frameworks meshes the potential of hypertext with constructivist learning theories, especially schema theory.” (p. 31)  Constructivism proposes that learning involve activities that are student centred.  These activities are designed to access prior knowledge, engage critical and metacognitive thinking and promote personal meaning making within the guidance of a social context (Gosse, Gunn, & Swinkels, 2002; Wilson & Lowry, 2000).  Many academics argue that this can be accomplished in a special way through web-based learning environments taking advantage of hypertext (Burbules & Callister, 1996; Graff, 2006; Shapiro & Niederhauser, 2004; Unz & Hesse, 1999).

Much of the ground work in describing the use of hypertext in learning environments was organized in Spiro and Jehng’s (1990) Cognitive Flexibility Theory (CFT).  They argued that the non-linear nature of web content, especially in areas of advanced knowledge, required a different approach to learning.  When students are faced with new knowledge situations, they are not simply accessing prior knowledge in one content area but are activating knowledge in a variety of content areas to be able to understand the new situation and construct meaning from it.  Since hypertext allows the student to approach knowledge from various points of view (what Spiro and Jehng (1990) call an “ill-structured domain” (p. 165)), they will come to any one piece of information with varying interpretations.  This leads to construction of new knowledge as explained by constructivism.

Shapiro and Nederhauser (2004), in a meta-analysis of learning in hypertext contexts, used CFT as a foundation of their study.  In doing so, they analyzed the link between reading hypertext and learning.  They concluded that reading in hypertext requires a significantly different approach as the reader has choice in order of reading.  The order is often affected by prior knowledge as well as current motivations.  These authors found a much higher level of metacognition was required by readers of hypertext since they had to mentally process the order they chose, assess what they were reading within the context of what they were expected to learn, and manipulate the software to get to the next item.  Burbules and Callister (1996) show how this multi-tasking approach ‘rewrites’ the various nodes of information accessed, leading to a renewed and often varied interpretation of the information.  They likened it to reading a very thorough set of commentaries on a book before reading the book itself.  The commentaries would alter the interpretation of the book.  Being able to use hypertext online provides a multitude of commentaries on every node of information; therefore each person will create different meaning upon reaching that same node.

Shapiro and Niederhauser (2004) conclude that there is no direct link between general learning with hypertext and the human brain’s way of thinking (as the opening comments by Bush and Bolter would suggest).  What they did find was the importance of structure in the hypertext.  Students with a high level of prior knowledge did well in ill-structured contexts while those with lower levels of prior knowledge required well-structured hypertext to be successful.  Students with lower levels of prior knowledge often became ‘lost’ while reading hypertext and required significant scaffolding such as guiding questions (e.g. Webquest).  This is supported by Atchison (2004) who contends that students new to the hypertext environment need significant guidance to learn how to discern and interpret information.  He says, “As does any educational tool, hypertext offers educators and students a set of affordances and not all of them fit naturally with the educational needs of all students.” (p. 7)

Graff (2006), in also analyzing the connections between hypertext reading and learning, implicates individual cognitive style on the effectiveness of learning.  He defines cognitive style as “…the way in which people process information, for example how they perceive, remember and use information from their surrounding environment.” (p. 144)  Graff concludes that it is important to account for cognitive style when designing hypertext learning environments.  Again, those having a non-self-regulating cognitive style benefitted from structured (hierarchical) hypertext.

In conclusion, although hypertext environments may mimic the associative structure of the brain, various factors must be considered before hypertext can become an effective learning tool.  Web-based information and tools can be used to create effective constructivist learning environments but guidance will continue to be needed for effective learning. Moving students away from being simply browsers to becoming users and even co-authors (Burbules & Callister, 1996) will require planning, scaffolding and active learning.  Although I disagree with Solway (2011) who says, “In the last analysis, hypertext as a function of our electronically-mediated infatuations in general tends to disorient and dilute the mind,…” (p. 350), I think we need to be aware that hypertext is simply another tool to aid in learning and not a surrogate, didactic teacher.

References

Atchison, B. (2004). Hypertext literacy: Are we teaching students to read and write hypertext? Journal of Educational Computing, Design & Online Learning, 5(Fall), 1–9. Retrieved from http://coe.ksu.edu/jecdol/Vol_5/pdf/hypertext_final.pdf

Bolter, J. D. (2001). Writing Space: Computers, Hypertext, and the Remediation of Print (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Burbules, N. C., & Callister, T. a. (1996). Knowledge At the Crossroads: Some Alternative Futures of Hypertext Learning Environments*. Educational Theory, 46(1), 23–50. doi:10.1111/j.1741-5446.1996.00023.x

Bush, V. (1945). As we may think. The Atlantic Monthly, (JULY 1945). Retrieved from http://web.mit.edu/STS.035/www/PDFs/think.pdf

Gosse, H., Gunn, H., & Swinkels, L. (2002). Constructivist Learning in a Hypertext Environment. Learning in a Hypertext Environment. Retrieved November 3, 2012, from http://www.accesswave.ca/~hgunn/special/papers/hypertxt/conlearn.html

Graff, M. (2006). Constructing and maintaining an effective hypertext-based learning environment: Web-based learning and cognitive style. Education+ Training, 48(2), 143–155. doi:10.1108/00400910610651773

Shapiro, A., & Niederhauser, D. (2004). Learning from hypertext: Research issues and findings. Handbook of research on …, 605–620. Retrieved from http://www.aect.org/edtech/ed1/23.pdf

Solway, D. (2011). On Hypertext, or Back to the Landau. Academic Questions, 24(3), 341–350. doi:10.1007/s12129-011-9235-x

Spiro, R., & Jehng, J. (1990). Cognitive flexibility and hypertext: Theory and technology for the nonlinear and multidimensional traversal of complex subject matter. In D. Nix & R. Spiro (Eds.), Cognition, Education, and Multimedia: Exploring Ideas in High Technology (pp. 163–205). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Retrieved from http://postgutenberg.typepad.com/newgutenbergrevolution/files/spiro_jehng.pdf

Unz, D. C., & Hesse, F. W. (1999). The Use of Hypertext for Learning. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 20(3), 279–295. doi:10.2190/FB08-5H94-3R3Y-KQLY

Wilson, B., & Lowry, M. (2000). Constructivist Learning on the Web. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 2000(88), 79–88. doi:10.1002/ace.8808

 

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Feasibility of E-textbooks

Posted on November 10, 2012 by Deborah S

Kress (2005) noted that “the once dominant paper-based media – the newspaper and the book above all – are giving way to the screen” (p. 17).  This phenomenon has made its way into the classroom as educators must choose between a traditional textbook or an electronic textbook (e-text) for their students.  While e-texts provide access to current content and offer students a more immersive experience consisting of images and video clips, the medium also changes the way in which students interact with the material.

Increased Flexibility

As noted by Kress (2005), the order of the printed book is “firmly coded” (p. 7) as the author has determined how the reader should progress through the material.  On a web page or in an e-text, however, the reader is in control and can “fashion their own knowledge” (Kress, 2005, p. 10) based on how they choose to progress through the material.  The reader’s active role in the electronic reading process has resulted in text that offers “greater chances for individual participation and interactivity” (Fornaciari, 2009, p. 648).

The e-text offers additional advantages such as the ability to include more images, video clips, animation and links to supplemental material.  Instead of being static, the text, as noted by Bolter (2001) is “interactive” and facilitates the “reader’s journey through the text” (p. 68).  The structure of an e-text may be more appealing to a young generation which is comfortable with non-linear or multilinear reading and who “have not developed a strong relationship with traditional paper texts” (Fornaciari, 2009, p. 645).

Incorporating current events into e-text content is accomplished more easily than a traditional textbook.  This capability is a decided advantage in Business courses where changes in the economy, unemployment figures, import and export data and business scandals occur regularly.

Cost and Environmental Considerations

Data suggests that e-texts are less expensive than paper textbooks.  Dillon (2007) concluded that the cost of a printed book ranged from $3.24 to $28.57 (as cited in Bunkell & Dyas-Correia, 2009).  Online publisher Elsevier noted that the initial cost of online books ranged from $0.25 to $4.80 per book and “there are lower ongoing costs for online books than for print, and the total cost per use decreases with each passing year” (Bunkell & Dyas-Correia, 2009, p. 216).  Given the current trend toward declining secondary school enrolment and cutbacks in government funding, e-texts could represent a cost-saving strategy for school boards.

When comparing traditional textbooks and e-texts, one must also examine the environmental impact of paper textbooks and e-texts.  A study by Moberg, Borggren & Finnveden (2011) concluded there are situations where the e-text is more environmentally-friendly and others where the paper textbook is better.  In a study of 17,000 pages of text, Moberg et al. (2011) noted that the e-book (when read on an e-reader) was more environmentally-friendly than the paper book in areas including “resources used, global warming, energy, eutrophication, human toxicity, marine aquatic ecotoxicity and terrestrial ecotoxicity” (p. 242).  While the paper book had a considerably higher “cumulative energy demand” (Moberg et al., 2011, p. 242) than the e-book, it was better “in terms of acidification, ozone depletion, freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity and photochemical ozone creation” (Moberg et al., 2011, p. 242).

Student Impact

While a recent study comparing e-texts to traditional paper textbooks found no difference in the mark achieved in a course or the overall learning outcome (Shepperd et al., 2008), there are differences in student usage and reading patterns.  Kress (2005) noted that the screen is the “contemporary canvas” (p. 18) and since the image is prominent, the “practices of reading becoming dominant are the practices derived from the engagement with [the] image” (p. 18).  Despite the importance of the image, however, Woody et al. (2008) noted that many e-texts are simply electronic versions of their paper counterparts.

Studies have indicated that individuals read electronic text differently than printed text.  Bolter (2001) noted that “electronic readers therefore shuttle between two nodes of reading, or rather they learn to read in a way that combines verbal and picture reading” (p. 68).  Studies by Nielson (1997) and Rho & Gedeon (2000) concluded that “readers skim[med] computer-based text more often than paper-based text” (as cited in Woody, Daniel & Baker, 2010, p. 945).  Nielson (2006) identified that individuals read “e-text in an F-pattern, searching for key terms rather than reading line by line” (as cited in Woody et al., 2010, p. 945).  In addition, despite being frequent computer users for other activities, Young (2001) noted that students believed that “reading from a computer fe[lt] disjointed” (as cited in Shepperd et al., 2008, p. 2).

Access is another significant difference between the two options as students require a computer, tablet or e-book reader to use the e-texts.  Unlike a printed text, a problem with computer access may result in the material being unavailable to the student.  In a study by Shepperd et al. (2008), students rated the convenience of electronic textbooks unfavourably.

Conclusion

Even though e-texts have the potential to provide a richer student experience through the use of current material, images, audio, video clips and hypertext, Shepperd et al. (2008) noted that only one-third of students who used an e-text indicated that they would purchase one again.  Kress (2005) posited that “reading has to be rethought” (p. 17) in this new era of multimodality.  Given the differences in student reading strategies between paper textbooks and e-texts, one cannot simply digitize a paper text.  E-texts must be designed to ensure students are effectively engaged and are receiving the greatest benefit from the material.

References

Bolter, J. D. (2001).  Writing space: Computers, hypertext and the remediation of print [2nd edition].  Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Bunkell, J. & Dyas-Correia, S. (2009). E-books vs. print: Which is the better value? The Serials Librarian, 56. 215-219. doi:10.1080/03615260802698283

Fornaciari, F. (2009).  Digital hypertexts vs. traditional books: An inquiry into non-linearity.  International Journal of Social and Human Sciences, 3.  Retrieved from https://www.waset.org/journals/ijshs/v3/v3-94.pdf

Kress, G. (2005). Gains and losses: New forms of texts, knowledge and learning. Computers and Composition, 22(1), 5-22. Retrieved October 27, 2012 from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compcom.2004.12.004

Moberg, Å., Borggren, C., & Finnveden, G. (2011). Books from an environmental perspective – Part 2: ebooks as an alternative to paper books. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 16. 238-246. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11367-011-0255-0

Shepperd, J.A., Grace, J.L., & Koch, E.J. (2008). Evaluating the electronic textbook: Is it time to dispense with the paper text? Teaching of Psychology, 35(1), 2-5.  doi:10.1080/00986280701818532

Woody, W.D., Daniel, D.B., & Baker, C.A. (2010).  E-books or textbooks: Students prefer textbooks.  Computers & Education, 55(3), 945-948. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.04.005

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Posted on November 10, 2012 by Eric Gearey

over Function.

At the start of the fourth chapter of his book Writing Space, Bolter (2011) points out the obvious when he writes that “we are living in a visual culture” (p.47).  “Photoshop”, the name given to an image manipulation software tool by the Adobe Company, is more often used as a verb in our contemporary culture than as a noun.  Images are incessantly doctored to meet one need or another to the point where the populous is reluctant to believe very little of what they are being spoon-fed by mass-media conglomerates as authentic.  From the covers of glossy magazines to the larger-than-life images of the silver screen, few, if any, images are what they seem to be.

In our insatiably capitalist society, the success of a film is not necessarily regarded as the quality of the storytelling, but rather the amount of commercial tie-ins that can be marketed to propel the fiscal gains.  Every year, the “summer blockbuster” films demand to have their characters’ images adorned on soda-pop cans, spark entire lines of action figures, generate several versions of franchise-themes video games and, to be taken seriously, should spawn countless sequels.  Films, and action films in particular, are a visual feast, appealing to many viewers, but are absolutely bulimic in terms of storytelling.  As Bolter (2011) puts it, “the desire to capture the world in the word has been gradually supplemented by the more easily gratified desire to see the world through visual technologies” (p.58).  Why read the book when you could watch the movie?  Heaven forbid our brains are stimulated and our imaginations are actively engaged in filling in the subtleties of a story.  As Bolter states, “to read a novel is to run a film in one’s head” and that “in even the most minutely descriptive novel there must be infinitely many visual details that are never provided” (p.57) and I doubt very much that product placements exist as extravagantly.  The systematic serialization of any successful story across a spectrum of blatant, and often shameful, exploitative marketing ventures is largely responsible for the uninspired and unimaginative tripe that passes for film today.

Turning our attention from the obnoxious fare of contemporary cinema and focusing on the pages of popular newspapers and magazines, the same oversimplifications and “dumbing-down” seems quite rampant.  As evinced by the example in his book, Bolter makes the accurate assertion that “the need to make a visually interesting picture has overridden the needs of the graph” (p.53).  Concerned with aesthetics over intelligence, much of the data offered in publications strives to be more entertaining than informative.  Even titles and headlines seem to be contrived attempts at cheery wordplay rather than accurate descriptors for the ensuing articles.  Again, Bolter (2011) points to the fact that “popular prose today seems constantly to be trying to become more visual and sensuous” (p.55).  Images supersede the importance of the written word, eventually replacing it all together.  As Bolter (2011) continues, “In all cases verbal text seems to be losing its power to contain and constrain the sensory” (p.55).

At the heart of this latest remediation of print lies, in my estimation, an unlikely culprit: typefaces.  In an age wherein digital manipulation and composition are so commonplace as to be included in everyday vernacular, it is typefaces that are driving the force behind preoccupation with that which is visually attractive over that which is informative.  As described in his biography of the late Steve Jobs, Walter Isaacson purports that it was Jobs’ interest in calligraphy while attending Reed College that helped to define the Desktop Publishing movement as we know it today.  Bolter (2011) states that “in Chinese writing the word signs are shapes whose function is to decorate as well as signify” (p.64).  He cites the fact that “medieval illumination threatened to turn letters back into images or abstract designs and sometimes made the letters all but impossible to read” (p.65).  The same can be said about the contemporary use of varied typefaces on the home computer.  Far too often students are preoccupied in making their work attractive rather than focusing on producing quality, and legible work.

Being no stranger to desktop publishing or the world of cinema, I am far from innocent in perpetuating many of the atrocities committed against the written word as described above.  I’ve seen far too many mindless movies and boast a collection of hundreds of illegible typefaces.  The key would seem to be in knowing how, when and why to use them.  In his original Star Wars trilogy, George Lucas said the special effects existed in the background of the film, that they helped to drive the plot forward.  In the majority of today’s films, the special effects are plot, leaving very little room for actual storytelling.  In the case of print media, typefaces are selected more for their aesthetic and emotional qualities at the cost and consideration of their legibility and appropriateness.  As Bolter (2011) articulates, “Genres are either experiencing a breakout of the visual or reacting against it” (p.55).

References:

Bolter, J. D. (2011). Writing as technology. Writing space: Computers, hypertext, and the remediation of print (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.

 

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Literacy in the 21st Century

Posted on November 9, 2012 by learle

In response to the first two chapters of Jay David Bolter’s Writing Space: Computers, Hypertext, and the Remediation of Print, the concept of text is changing and thus changing the concept of literacy. Literacy today does not mean that we need to simply read and write anymore. According to the B.C. Ministry of Education, “Literacy today involves being able to understand and process oral, written, electronic, and multi-media forms of communication that are referred to as texts. Texts are no longer limited to print on paper but now also comprise audio, electronic, graphic, and multi-media formats” (2011, p. 3). Today, in the 21st Century, there exist many types of literacies: digital literacy, visual literacy, technological literacy, etc. The world in which we live today has become so complex that something as simple as reading and writing has had to evolve into a new realization that language is multi-dimensional.

Educators must realize that they need to teach differently because “… many texts might never be printed, but simply distributed in digital form” (Bolter, 2001, p. 2). The digital form of a book or text in general allows for a more stimulating reading and viewing experience, complete with the notion of choice and commentary. As Bolter states, “In the late age of print , however, we seem more impressed by the impermanence and changeability of text, and digital technology seems to reduce the distance between author and reader by turning the reader into an author herself” (2001, p. 4). This is clearly visible in the concept of blogging, where anyone can create a blog and begin to write and post pictures and videos. Bolter also speaks about the shift to the computer that we are experiencing and that “[t]his shift … may make writing more flexible, but it also threatens the definitions of good writing and careful reading that have developed in association with the technique of printing” (2001, p. 4). As an educator, this exact shift is troublesome because students do not really know how to determine what is appropriate and valid in this digital world. Students of today must learn how to manage the information by which they are surrounded. Students need to have the ability to obtain and share knowledge by means of media technology and according to the B.C. Ministry of Education, “becoming literate in this area involves finding, gathering, assessing, and communicating information using electronic means, as well as developing the knowledge and skills to use and solve problems effectively with the technology” (2007, p. 15). Becoming technologically and/or digitally literate is undoubtedly imperative in the 21st Century.

With the current educational paradigm, not only is literacy changing and becoming much more complex, but also the classroom itself is changing. Bolter also indicated, “Some educators imagine a classroom in which books are replaced by virtual environments” (Bolter, 2001, p. 5). This concept of the virtual environment classroom is a reality; it is not something that educators imagine anymore. Virtual learning environments (VLE) are sprouting up in every level of education, from elementary to university. The literacy requirements for someone who is partaking in a VLE course are considerably higher than those who are in a normal walled classroom. Students of VLEs must be able to read and access various forms of media on their own – they are no longer handed a book a told which page to turn to; they are no longer able to simply listen to understand and learn. They must now learn to be literate in multiple capacities. The New London Group discusses the concept of multiliteracies which has essentially created a “different kind of pedagogy, one in which language and other modes of meaning are dynamic representational resources, constantly being remade by their users as they work to achieve their various cultural purposes” (1996, p. 64). They argue that with the increasing number of “modes of meaning-making” a single set of standards or skills for literacy learning or teaching is not adequate. They continue their argument by stating that in order to be an effective and productive citizen, one must learn how to interact effectively using “multiple languages, multiple Englishes and communication patterns that more frequently cross cultural, community, and national boundaries” (1996, p.64). Literacy is no longer about learning and teaching to read and write in paper-based contexts that are limited to a national standard of language. The concept of literacy must be broadened to include negotiating a multiplicity of discourses especially because of the rapid expansion of the use of technology.

Due to the widespread use of technology in today’s classrooms, whether virtual or physical, educators need to be able to adapt their lessons and teach differently. Educators must remember that, according to Jones and Flannigan, “Literacy includes the ability to read and interpret media (text, sound, images), to reproduce data and images through digital manipulation, and to evaluate and apply new knowledge gained from digital environments.” (2006, p. 9). Therefore educators need to be able to teach students not only how to read and interpret what is they are viewing, but they need to be able to teach them how to manipulate, evaluate and construct new knowledge from that which was viewed. One of the most difficult issues to overcome in education today concerning new literacies is that many teachers themselves are not comfortable with computers. Jones and Flannigan “found a common void in professional development for faculty—training needed to gain the requisite computer skills to integrate technology into the curriculum effectively” (2006, p. 9). It is hard to educate the future generations about a technological world when those who provide the education are often illiterate in technology themselves. Literacy in the 21st century is important not only for the younger generations in the school system today, but also for those who teach these juveniles.

 References

B.C. Ministry of Education. (2007). English language arts grade 10: Integrated resource package.. Retrieved from http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/irp/pdfs/english_language_arts/2007ela_812_10.pdf

B.C. Ministry of Education. (2011). French (Elementary – Secondary) Curriculum Draft Document. Retrieved from http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/irp/drafts/french.pdf

Bolter, J.D. (2001). Writing space: Computers, hypertext, and the remediation of print. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Jones, B.R. & Flannigan, S. L. (2006). Connecting the digital dots: Literacy of the 21st century. Educause Quarterly. Retrieved from http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/EQM0621.pdf

New London Group. (1996). A pedagogy of multiliteracies: Designing social futures. Harvard Educational Review; 66(1), p. 60-92. Retrieved from http://vassarliteracy.pbworks.com/f/Pedagogy+of+Multiliteracies_New+London+Group.pdf

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The Internet: A Place for Minority Voices

Posted on November 9, 2012 by cmck

 The Internet: A Place for Minority Voices

Introduction

In Writing Space, Bolter (2011) noted that past remediations of text resulted in the leaving behind of culturally irrelevant texts. These lost voices, Bolter claimed,  will belong to smaller, poorer groups of people. This may be true as we make a shift from paper-based text media to the internet because it would not be possible to make electronic copies of all books.

Fortunately, even if the traditional texts are being lost, the internet is also making it easier for anyone to publish materials. So even though some voices will be lost, many minority groups are finding a new voice among community members and the rest of the world.

By looking at four minority groups — the First Nations; the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered (LGBT) community; the researchers in developing countries; and hate groups — This commentary will discuss the internet as a place where the remediation of text is also providing minorities with a stronger voice.

Places for Minority Voices

Many minority groups have created a place on the internet to connect with others in their group and share their voice with others. The following are two examples of these types of sites.

The Cradleboard Teaching Project

[youtube]https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xBmWcNPGiIU[/youtube]

The Cradleboard Teaching Project is one of these sites. Its focus is on improving education of Native Americans and about Native Americans (Nihewan Foundation, 2002). To improve Native American education, the Cradleboard site has a members’ section where students and teachers can access multimedia, discussion forums, and chatrooms in order to connect with each other and develop a positive image of themselves (Nihewan Foundation).

As well as connecting Native Americans, the Cradleboard also reaches out to non-Native Americans. Non-Native Americans can access the resources, lesson plans, and communication platforms in order to further their own education about Native Americans and to clear up any misconceptions and stereotypes that exist (Nihewan Foundation, 2002).

Empty Closets

[youtube]https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=avXSxpwpiNc[/youtube]

Similar to to the Native Americans involved with the Cradleboard Teaching Project, the gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered (LGBT) communities have many websites dedicated to building their community, supporting one another, and providing a voice for LGBT people. Empty Closets is one such site.

Empty Closets’ most active area is their discussion forum. The discussion forum allows members to share experiences, ask questions, and provide support for each other (Empty Closets, 2012).  As well as the more serious discussions, the forums also has places for fun, casual discussion (Empty Closets) in order to build a sense of community. For more immediate discussions there is a chat room.

Other areas of the site are dedicated to providing resources about coming out and about health issues such as STDs. There is also a news section about LGBT issues in the media, and a section to provide links to other related web pages (Empty Closets, 2012).

So, in order to build community and to communicate with outsiders, minority groups are turning to the internet.

The Public Knowledge Project

Open knowledge projects are also giving minorities a voice in academic research. The Public Knowledge Project (PKP) at Simon Fraser University is making scholarly research open to the world (Willinsky, 2012). In 2001, the PKP released Open Journal Systems (OJS). OJS is an open-source, online tool to manage the submission, review, and editing of journal publishing, all of which are not only time consuming, but also expensive (Owen & Stranack, 2008). OJS is also flexible enough to allow for different publishing models even though it is set up mainly for open access journal publishing (Owen & Stranack).

The openness of OJS has been particularly beneficial to those in developing countries because it has given them a forum to publish their research. As of 2012, 23.5% of scholarly research was published using OJS. Of that research, 90% was freely available. Of the freely available journals, half, or 6000 to 8000 journals, were from developing countries (Willinsky, 2012). Because of the cost-savings and ease of publishing, scholars from developing countries now have a platform for their research, and, therefore, have a more prominent voice in academics.

Hate Sites

As Postman (1992) says, though, we must always be aware of technology’ benefits and detriments. The benefits are that minority voices have a platform. The detriment is that not all of those voices are pleasant.

By the year 2000, which is relatively early in popular internet use, there were already up to 400 hate group internet sites (McNamee, Peterson, & Pena, 2010), such as Storm Front.

McNamee et al. (2010) have identified four purposes of hate sites. The first is educating their own members and the outside public about their beliefs (McNamee et al., 2010). The second isto plan and promote participation in their activities (McNamee et al., 2010). The third is invocation. Hate groups often feel divinely chosen to be superior to other groups of people, and their web sites will often try to send out messages of their superiority (McNamee et al., 2010). The fourth is indictment. As part of their education campaign, hate groups want a way to publicly indict government, corporate media, educational institutions, and anyone else for failing to act in ways that the groups deems appropriate (McNamee et al., 2010).

As with other minority groups, the number of hate group sites is evidence that hate groups are finding a voice on the internet. And, as with other minority groups, hate groups are using their voice to promote their research (as flawed as it may be), to build community, and to educate others.

Conclusion

Bolter (2011) may have been right about remediation causing texts to be lost, but in the late ages of print, the loss of texts does not mean that all minority groups will be losing their voices. The internet is making it easier for minority groups to share their beliefs and build their communities. So, while we may be losing what remains of voices that are no longer active, many minority voices are adapting well to the new media.

References

Bolter, J. D. (2011). The electronic book. In Writing space: Computers, Hypertext, and the Remediation of Print (2nd ed., pp. 77-98). New York: Routledge.

Empty Closets (2012). Empty closets: Coming out resources and a safe place to chat. Retrieved from http://emptyclosets.com/

McNamee, L. G., Peterson, B. L., & Pena, J. (2010). A Call to Educate, Participate, Invoke and Indict: Understanding the Communication of Online Hate Groups. Communication Monographs, 77(2), 257-280. doi:10.1080/03637751003758227

Nihewan Foundation for American Indian Education. (2002). Cradleboard Teaching Project. Retrieved from http://www.cradleboard.org/

Owen, G., & Stranack, K. (2008). The Public Knowledge Project and the Simon Fraser University Library: A Partnership in Open Source and Open Access. Serials Librarian, 55(1/2), 140-167.

Postman, N. (1992). Technopoly: The surrender of culture to technology. New York: Vintage Books. Reinhart, J. M., Thomas, E., & Toriskie, J. M. (2011). K-12 Teachers: Technology Use and the Second Level Digital Divide. Journal Of Instructional Psychology, 38(3), 181-193.

Storm Front (2012). Retrieved from http://www.stormfront.org

Willinsky, J. (2012). Open for what? Open to what? Beyond Content. (video) Retrieved from http://openedconference.org/2012/program/archive-of-sessions/day-2/day2-900am-c300/

 

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Hypertext: The Drive for Immediacy

Posted on November 9, 2012 by joypenner

Introduction

In Chapter 3 of Writing space: Computers, Hypertext and the Remediation of Print, Bolter (2001) states that, “Hypertext, in all its electronic forms…is the remediation of print” (p. 42).  In fact, he contends that hypertext is a distinct genre that takes the printed text to a new level, remediating other printed genres. He describes the old genres as “linear,” “hierarchical,” and “static,” while hypertext turns them into something “multiple,” “associative,” and interactive (p. 42).

Remediation

Bolter’s (2001) use of the word “remediation” implies that something was wrong with print.  According to the Oxford English Dictionary, remediation is “the action of correcting or remedying something.” To discover then what motivated the “cure” of hypertext, we need to explore the perceived deficiencies of print.

Print in the form of digital word-processing has granted useful affordances over its predecessor, the typewriter.  The typewriter, compared to industrial printing, offered speed and individual use. Although an improvement, it did not offer flexibility in arranging one’s thoughts. Manual typewriters were replaced by digital word processors.  This new remediation kept part of the old (typing), but offered a new affordance: the ability to manipulate the text with ease. The text could now be reworked according to the writer’s thinking before being fixed on a printed sheet (Bolter, 2001).

According to Bolter (2001) past remediations were likely based on the “sense of the medium failing one’s thoughts” (p. 33).  However, he maintains that the current remediation of print in the form of hypertext, is based on the fact that “we are now overwhelmed from without” (p. 33).  There is a plethora of information available, too much for our minds to process. The creation of the index sought to address this informational abundance, offering a more relaxed, personal reading of some texts. However, it was inadequate in the face of the sheer volume of knowledge available. Driven by the need to somehow manage our information, we have turned to hypertext and ultimately hypermedia.  Digital technology expands on the use of the index, making associations easier.

Hypertext is based on the notion of interconnectedness or associations (Bolter, 2001). According to editor of the Atlantic Monthly, in his comments on Bush’s vision, he asserted that it required “a new relationship between thinking man and the sum of his knowledge” (Busch, 1945, p.1).  Bolter (2001) describes it as  “layered writing and reading,” “places along a path,” and “a new form of writing” (pp. 27-29).  Through the affordance of hypertext, man now has ready access to information outside of his mind rather than within. The reader is now in control of the text, following his/her own “paths of meaning” (p. 35).

So far, I have established the fact, through Bolter (2001), that print is currently being remediated by hypertext, based on a need for something better able to handle the mass of information available.  However, remediation is never that simple. Although there are likely multiple socio-cultural factors involved, Bolter (2001) focuses specifically on the one main reason: the handling of information. I would now like to offer a closer look at what he refers to only in passing in this text (he addresses it more fully in another): immediacy (p. 70).

The Value of Immediacy

Our culture places great importance on immediacy.  One only has to watch a few television commercials to realize that we prize, efficiency, speed, and instant results. This value has driven our technology evidenced by the push for timesaving housework gadgets, cars to replace walking or the horse, automated factories to improve efficiency, and of course digital media that allows instant publishing.  Phenomenon such as embedded news reporters in war zones and “live point-of-view television programs” are evidence of our “insatiable desire for immediacy” (Bolter, 2000, p. 64).

Hypertext responds to this value by breaking down knowledge into “smaller pieces of information,” something Engelbart noted back in 1962 (p. 57). Bolter (2001) refers to these “discrete units” (p. 29) as “topics and their connections” (p. 35). These topics may take the form of  “paragraphs, sentences, individual words, … digitized graphics and segments of video” (p. 35). Images, said to “paint a thousand words” are now ubiquitous. They offer instant access to meaning, saving time by negating the need to read those 1000 words.

Hypertext as a remediation of print offers immediacy. We no longer need to go to the library, or rely on memory, or even read copious amounts of text to find information.  We are already seeing what Bolter (2001) envisioned: readers not being willing to look anywhere but the Web. Hypertext signifies the act of skipping stones through water. One can move through virtual space, skimming here and there, touching down only lightly to pick up things of interest. In this environment, pages that offer less (white space and visuals) will compete with those that offer text only. Speaking of the “buttoned style, “ Bolter (2011) states that “to place more than a sentence or two of text on screen is an admission of failure” (p. 72).

Implications

Engelbart (1962) envisioned hypertext as a way to “augment human intellect” (p.1). To him this was not just a means of obtaining more information but rather a path to a deeper ability for comprehending and solving complex problems.  In theory this sounds feasible, although I wonder whether the value of immediacy conflicts with the requirements of complex problem solving.  Hypertext offers a breadth of knowledge, an opportunity to flit here and there, but not necessarily depth.  Will our students be able to piece together that which has been “attacked by scissors and cut into convenient pieces” (Bolter, 2001, p. 35) in order to solve complex problems? This is something that we are going to have to decide as we progress deeper into the late age of print and the preponderance of hypermedia.  If the medium fails us, it will lead to the remediation of hypertext in the not too distant future.

References

Bolter, J.D. (March, 2000). Remediation and the desire for immediacyConvergence: The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies March 2000 6: 62-71. doi:10.1177/135485650000600107.

Bolter, J.D. (2001). Writing Space: Computers, hypertext, and the remediation of print. Mahway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Bush, V. (1945). As we may think. The Atlantic Monthly, 176(1), 101-108. Retrieved October 21, 2012, from http://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/flashbks/computer/bushf.htm

Engelbart, Douglas. (1963). “A conceptual framework for the augmentation of man’s intellect.” In Hawerton, P.W. and Weeks, D.C. (Eds), Vistas in information handling, Volume I: The augmentation of man’s intellect by machine. Washington, DC: Spartan Books. Augmentation of human intellect: A conceptual framework. Retrieved October 21, 2012, from http://www.dougengelbart.org/pubs/augment-3906.html

Remediation. (2012) In Oxford English Dictionary Online (2012).  Retrieved from http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/162121?redirectedFrom=remediation#eid

 

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Storing the World’s Knowledge

Posted on November 8, 2012 by Meggan Crawford

When predicting the future developments in writing technology and the directions of knowledge storage at the close of World War II, Vannevar Bush (1945) was faced with a very different world than those of us who consider these technologies in the year 2012.  Although concerned with many issues, Bush mentions the overwhelming amount of knowledge available to the world and questions how this volume of knowledge can be utilized and profited from (1945, pg. 9).  It is easy to understand that the sheer volume of knowledge was (and still is) beyond any individual’s ability to obtain, but Bush emphasizes the question of whether or not any record can help people to increase their personal volume of knowledge or if these are simply new options for storing the knowledge that no one individual can hold within their own mind.

Although many of the new options that Bush suggests are now common and a part of our daily lives, the ways in which knowledge is gained have not made similar leaps.  Knowledge is, quite often, still obtained by reading, although the format of the information may have shifted from books to the Internet.  This again raises questions about how our knowledge is stored and what the best ways to preserve knowledge are.  When considering the drastic decline in sales of Encyclopaedia Britannica in its traditional text form and the increasing focus on online and CD-ROM versions (The Patriot News, 1998) the question of knowledge storage is given a practical form.  Do libraries need to continue buying texts or should they invest only in online sources of information?  Is the tangible book losing value?

Although the information remains mostly the same despite the different mediums, the question is whether or not our new storage options are increasing or decreasing the amount of knowledge that is gained from the process of seeking out information.  Even in 1945, Bush questioned how moving directly to a piece of information might affect what knowledge is gained, as the process of learning becomes more focused upon making connections and relating information to other knowledge.  With the Internet and other technological options, knowledge is often found by moving directly to the topic, rather than searching through a text which, although effective, does impact what is gained in the process.  As the Patriot News suggests, learners have lost something in the process of moving knowledge storage more completely towards technology, as they no longer invest time in “wander[ing] down the hall with Henry VII” (1998, para. 8) since the format of the knowledge brings them directly to the necessary information with fewer diversions.  At the same time, however, I cannot help but wonder if the speed with which information can be found provides learners with more time to diverge.  As the speed of knowledge gain is increased, those seeking knowledge can more readily seek out answers to other questions that, if knowledge is based solely in books, might otherwise go unanswered due to limitations on time and accessibility.  If this is the case, is the change in knowledge storage beneficial due to the increase in speed and improvements in access to knowledge that accompanied it or is the lack of ‘wandering’ a negative that is actually detracting from our knowledge?

Whether beneficial or detrimental, knowledge storage must continue to move towards technology in order to keep pace with knowledge itself.  If knowledge may only be presented in books there is little that can be done to preserve everything, particularly given the rapid pace of knowledge growth.  Ten years ago the volume of accessible knowledge was “doubling every five years” (Stehr, 2001, p. 89), a pace at which we would certainly experience loss if books were the only method of storage, due simply to the fact that production would not be able to easily facilitate widespread dispersal of such knowledge.  The Internet and possible future technologies, however, fills this need by allowing speedy sharing of information around the world.

Although there are gains and losses with the development of technology based knowledge storage, the same can be said of most changes in our world.  The question must instead be whether it is beneficial for those who are making use of it.  As long as the development of technology does not eliminate the creation of books, then both options remain viable, each with different positive and negative aspects for individuals and groups.  As well, with the pace of change, knowledge expansion, and technological development, it is nearly impossible to predict, as Bush tried to do, where the future will bring our knowledge and what format it will take along the way.

References

Bush, V. (1945).  As we may think. Atlantic magazine. Retrieved from http://www.theatlantic.com.

Stehr, N. (2001).  A world made of knowledge. Society 39(1). Pp. 89-92.

The Patriot News. (1998).  Britannica adjusts to technology, remains a full volume of knowledge.  Pennsylvania: Harrisburg.

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Calligraphy: Words Become Art All Around The World

Posted on November 3, 2012 by murray12

Introduction

Calligraphy can be considered a formative art that uses writing as its medium. While typical writing is used as a set of signs designed to replace spoken words, calligraphy tries to be something more. Many of the first characters in history were primitive pictorial representations without a fixed form (Tomohiko,1967). Overtime, these characters became progressively pared down from their original objects and were instead connected with geometrical arrangements (Tomohiko,1967). Calligraphy, then, can be considered in many ways to be a departure from abstraction towards a visual expression of meaning. The calligrapher becomes free in their arrangements to create art that merges writing, visuals, and the personality of the calligrapher. Calligraphic scripts have undergone many alterations throughout history, which have led to new calligraphic styles and accompanying names all over the world.

Tools

The tools and techniques used by calligraphers have varied greatly over massive spans of geography and history. Paper was selected for its gloss; a balance was required so that the ink does not unintentionally spread around the page (Negahban, 1989). To write on paper, Japanese calligraphers would use hair writing brushes. The hair allows the ink to be spread in different ways depending on the speed and pressure applied by the calligrapher (Tomohiko, 1967). Persian calligraphers, however, have traditionally used pens cut from reeds. The nib is cut differently depending on the intended style of writing (Negahban, 1989).

Education

Learning the art of calligraphy typically followed a master and student relationship. Masters would provide their students with writing specimens to copy and eventually develop further into a style of their own creation (Tomohiko, 1967). Like many other cultures, Islamic masters would begin the study of calligraphy at a young age and continue throughout their lifetime (Ernst, 1992). In addition to placing an importance on the formal aspects of their script, Islamic calligraphers also sought intellectual mastery, purification of the heart, and intense love (Ernst, 1992). They believed that a calligrapher required moderation and balance in the soul, otherwise the expression of the divine beauty with pen and ink would become flawed (Ernst, 1992).

The Western World

 The West, influence by its artists, pursued the chimera of “divine proportion,” the mathematical relationship believed to be the key to beauty. (Druet, 1988)

The history of European typographical design begins with the Phoenicians and Greeks. These seafaring and colonizing cultures invented the early alphabets that could carry precise and legible messages over long distances (Druet, 1988). Thus, the priority of Western scripts arose from a need for speed of execution and simplicity of design. It wasn’t until the development of the Latin script, appearing about 600 B.C. in Rome, that the merging of words and art truly began in the West (Druet, 1988). The original square capitals used in Latin eventually evolved to an early form of cursive script, followed by a rounded uncial script in the second and third centuries (Memidex, 2012). The Book of Kells, a massive Gospel codex created by Celtic monks in the eighth century, serves as an example of how Latin calligraphy can merge with illustrations to produce a dense visual masterpiece (Lewis, 1980).

As universities arose in Europe during the twelfth century, so to did the need for a small font size that could aid a diminishing supply of parchment paper (Druet, 1988). The creation of the Gothic style, with its angular and narrow dimensions, became the solution (Druet, 1988). The invention of spectacles in the fifteenth century also helped to support the trend for writing to become smaller (Druet, 1988). However, the humanist scholars of the fifteenth-century Italy considered Gothic script to be too blurred from and distance and too straining close up (Druet, 1988). The Italian Renaissance consequently looked to classical antiquity for inspiration. These calligraphers revived the simplicity and clarity that was found in ancient monumental lettering, which is characteristic of printing today (Druet, 1988).

Around 1450, the German printer Johannes Gensfleisch, known as Gutenberg, created the first printing press (Druet, 1988). His forty-two-line Bible was printed in Gothic lettering, which was the world’s first typeface (Druet, 1988). Afterwards, Gutenberg created nearly three hundred different typefaces so he could reproduce different scripts as accurately as possible (Druet, 1988). Gutenberg’s printing press spread throughout parts of Europe and so did new typography and typefaces. Consequently, calligraphers in the west became, in many respects, typography designers who developed typefaces and prints to meet the needs of readers, governments, poets, publishers, advertisers, and art admirers.

 Bengal

 The Islamic tradition considers calligraphy a powerful visual form for conveying aesthetics and cultural messages. (Siddiq, 2005)

Bengal, a historical region in the northeast region of the Indian Subcontinent, has been the source of numerous calligraphy artifacts since the late Middle Ages. Prior to this pre-Islamic period in Bengal, most artists and craftsmen did not use their skills to exhibit calligraphy (Siddiq, 2005). Rather, after the advent of Islam in Bengal, around the seventh century, many Muslim rulers ordered for large architectural projects to be completed with calligraphic inscriptions (Siddiq, 2005). Visually powerful inscriptions would often play a central role in architectural decoration (Siddiq, 2005). Calligraphers had to adopt new methods and practices continuously produce appealing effects for such projects.

Religious glorification is a major part of most monumental calligraphy in Bengal. Mosques would regularly be decorated with divine names and adjectives. When Islam suddenly spread into the Bengal and the east, many newly converted Muslims had difficulties imaging the formless God of the Islamic faith (Siddiq, 2005). The written form of ‘Allah’ in Arabic, however, provided these individuals with a valuable mental image that could be used for contemplating about God.

China

The calligrapher is an envoy of mystery, and the undereducated will never be able to master or comprehend it. Wang Xizhi, The Chinese Saint of Calligraphy (Zheng, 1994)

For thousands of years, calligraphy has remained a popular cultural form in China. It has undergone a long evolution and developed a variety of styles. Chinese calligraphy is known for showing excellent unity between form and content (Zheng,1994) It has also held a mystic status.

Famous Chinese calligraphers were said to have acquired their artful skills in their dreams or from God (Zheng, 1994). Calligraphy became a domain reserved only by those few qualified intellectuals of leisure, intelligence, and luck (Zheng, 2005). It became equated with Confucian elegance. The privileged in society could display their elegance by hanging calligraphy in their home, an indication of their distance from vulgarity (Zheng, 2005). These hangings would usually consist of poetry or philosophical instructions that advocate how to adhere to a high standard of behavior and decency (Zheng, 2005). The majority of Chinese society could only admire the aesthetics of the calligraphy around them. However in the nineteen-fifties and early sixties, fountain pens and ballpoint pens became increasingly common writing tools, replacing writing brushes (Zheng, 1994). Not long after, calligraphy was only seriously practiced by a small group of scholars and professional artists (Zheng, 2005).

Japan

 Writing calligraphy is really hard work: one can write the same thing several times over and produce only one or two characters that are pleasing to oneself. Mi Fu (1051-1107), one of the most celebrated calligraphers of the Sung Dynasty (Tomohiko,1967)

Japanese calligraphy does not date back as far as Chinese calligraphy, but its role in Japanese culture is no less significant. At a stage in time when Japanese society required a method of writing, they in fact were already in the possession of Chinese characters brought over from their China’s continent (Tomohiko,1967). Thus, the ancient Japanese already had a script available to them to use to write their own language. The Japanese learned the writing of Chinese from the Chinese scribes who settled in Japan (Tomohiko,1967). Japanese words would have been translated into Chinese characters before it could be written (Tomohiko,1967). However, the Japanese language contains nuances that are difficult to adequately convey through translation. This formidable barrier brought challenges. With no available alternative, Japanese nuances were transcribed phonetically using Chinese characters (Tomohiko,1967). This process produced the first edition of the Kana language.

Up until the twelfth century, Chinese writing was used only by upper class men, while the less educated men and women wrote in Kana (Tomohiko,1967). It became superstition that any woman found writing in Chinese would find misfortune (Tomohiko,1967). Over time these two written forms evolved into different forms, with many styles of calligraphy being assigned to both. A new style began to evolve in the ninth century that boldly simplified formations to the extent that all connection with the original Chinese characters was lost (Tomohiko,1967). Eventually, this simplified version of Kana became so convenient that it became popular with all Japanese classes and sexes.

Many calligraphers were hired to write sets of Kana as a model for practice. The transfer of responsibility for Kana to men brought huge motivation for calligraphers to pursue the perfection of Kana. Thus the Japanese Kana had a Golden age from the tenth to thirteenth century. Many different Kana variations have appeared since that time, but all of these styles share some resemblance to the style originating in the eleventh century.

 

References

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Ernst, Carl. (1992). The Spirit of Islamic Calligraphy: Bābā Shāh Iṣfahānī’s Ādāb al-mashq. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 112(2), 279-286.

Lewis, Suzanne. (1980). Sacred Calligraphy: The Chi Rho Page In The Book. Traditio, 36, 139-159.

Memidex (2012). Wordnet. Retrieved October 22nd, 2012 from http://www.memidex.com/uncial+script

Negahban, Ezat. (1989). Persian Calligraphy. Expedition, 31(1).

Siddiq, Mohammad. (2005). Calligraphy and Islamic Culture: Reflections on Some New Epigraphical Discoveries in Gaurand Pandua, Two Early Capitals of Muslim Bengal. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 68(1), 21-58.

Tomohiko, Horie. (1967). Japanese Calligraphy. Japanese Quarterly, 14(1).

Zheng, Da. (1994). Chinese Calligraphy and the Cultural Revolution. The Journal of Popular Culture,28(2), 185-201.

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