Final Project: Getting Graphic

Posted on November 25, 2012 by kymfrancis

For my final project, I focused on the graphic novel.  I have created a weebly site to show off my amazing attempts (now known as Exhibit A in the case as to why I should not be an art educator) at creating comics and graphic novels.  The site also includes important vocabulary and additional resources.  My final project paper is below, if you want to avoid burning your eyes out with my comic creations.  (I’m trying to be humble, but I am really quite proud of my creations.)

Thanks,
Kym

Getting Graphic:
Using Graphic Novels in the Language Arts Classroom

Cave Walls to Comic Books
Sequential art narratives are images structured into a sequence to tell a story.  Carter (2009) outlines the transition of sequential art, from cave paintings to comic books to the graphic novel.  The first comic book was published in 1938, and children very quickly began collecting and exchanging them.  Unfortunately, by the 1960’s, a combination of criticism and the advent of the television left comic books by the wayside (Monnin, 2010). In the 1970s, comic artists responded to societal assumptions that comics were immature and created graphic novels to prove the opposite.  Chun (2009) defines graphic novels as original, book-length fiction or non-fiction stories, with mature themes and complex narratives, published in a comic book style. Graphic novels provide a reading experience with simultaneous images and text, as if the reader is both reading and watching a movie simultaneously.  Jim Steranko created Red Tide and Will Eisner wrote and illustrated A Contract with God in 1978.  Since these were first published, graphic novels have garnered critical acclaim; Art Spiegelman’s graphic novel, Maus II, won the Pulitzer Prize in 1992 and Gene Luen’s <em “mso-bidi-font-style:=”” normal”=””>American Born Chinese won the Michael L. Printz Award in 2007 (Monnin, 2010).  

In more recent years, graphic novels have inspired countless films and television shows.  Today, society is dominated by the visual image, and transmedia is becoming more prominent.  Today, society is dominated by the visual image.  Television, films, magazines, and the Internet are using images to communicate, entertain, and profit (Gillenwater, 2009).  Graphic novels have impacted the images we view daily.  Movies such as Batman, Spider-Man, Scott Pilgrim vs. the World, and Iron Man are all based on graphic novels (Behler, 2006). Television shows, such as The Walking Dead,Smallville, and The Human Target are based on graphic novels. 

Educational Implications of Visual Literacy
Chun (2009) outlines the 2004 PISA 2000 report, which surveyed the teens of 43 countries.  Research found that students’ level of reading engagement was more important than socioeconomic background as a predictor of literary performance. Educators with marginalized students, with limited access to resources, can nurture a love of reading to eliminate these socioeconomic barriers to success.  Moreover, increasing student engagement in reading provides a gateway into social groups and networks in the classroom, community, and world through book clubs, blogs, chat groups, and other online activities (Chun, 2009).  

Visual literacy is the reading of text and images in conjunction, and requires traditional reading skills as well as ability to read frames, gutters, speech bubbles, and other graphic novel features (Monnin, 2010).  Students need access and interaction with both print and visual literacy in order to be best prepared for the demands of the 21st century.  Both literacies require interpretation, negotiation, and meaning making from readers, which in turn supports student ability to interpret the world.  Graphic novels provide the ideal vehicle for both print and visual literacy skill to be developed in the classroom (Gillenwater, 2009).  

Despite the prolific nature of visual images, many educators continue to use traditional text and “teach a one-dimensional concept of literacy, while students learn to negotiate their out-of-school experiences with images via …personal trial and error, peers, and from the media itself” (Gillenwater, 2009, p. 33). The popularity of graphic novels has led educators to question their validity in the classroom.  Some educators consider them to be a dumbed down version of literature and inappropriate for children.  In actuality, graphic novels are effective tools for fostering literacy skills (Monnin, 2010).  

Griffith (2010) summarizes prior research regarding the effectiveness of graphic novels as an educational tool.  Graphic novels support vocabulary development, language learning, motivation to read, and reading comprehension through effective combination of print and visual literacy in a mutually complimentary manner.  Because graphic novel text does not describe what is happening in the illustrations, it demands a sophisticated level of literacy from the reader (Gillenwater, 2009).  Dialogue and complex literary elements such as symbolism, imagery, and theme are woven between the text and images presented on the graphic novel page; the reader must synthesize these elements to understand the story being told.  

Readers are drawn into the graphic novel narrative through their own complex visual and print language that requires readers to use imagination and inference.  Students incorporate text, pictures, facial expressions, panel progression, color, and sound effects to find meaning.  Graphic novels are one example of sequential art, and are considered effective means of engaging reluctant readers and inspiring motivated readers.  Graphic novels have been found to attract new readers, motivate male readers, and challenge gifted students (Carter, 2009).

Carter (2007) identifies three ways that students can view graphic novels: cross curricular, as complimentary to traditional classroom text, and using contact zone theory to examine social issues.  Contact zone theory challenges teachers and students to critically examine issues from multiple points of view in order to dialogue with others.  Through these three lenses, graphic novels support student learning of social issues and development of personal opinions on justice.  

The Depth of Graphic Novels
Graphic novels encompass fiction, historical fiction, and non-fiction, and cover a variety of themes and topics, including true crime, history, science, biography, and memoirs (Behler, 2006).  Additionally, graphic novels deal with mature and relevant topics to students, including date rape, natural disasters, genocide, and violence.  Equally important, they focus around adolescent issues such as coming of age, identity, and friendship (Carter, 2009).  Their educational value and universal appeal make them an important part of the Language Arts curriculum (Behler, 2006).  

Outside of Language Arts, graphic novels are powerful tool for teaching history (Monnin, 2010).  Chun (2009) articulates the value of historically-based graphic novels, such as <em “mso-bidi-font-style:=”” normal”=””>Maus, for their ability to communicate historical content in an engaging and meaningful way.  He argues that students “can mediate these historical realities with their unique visual narrative styles that allow many readers, especially adolescent ones, to imagine and interpret characters’ experiences that are far removed from their own daily lives” (p.. 146). 

Chun (2009) speaks to the human value of graphic novels, stating that “graphic novel[s] can potentially influence students’ lives.  Reading these powerful narratives gives students a sense of ownership over these texts through their intellectual and emotional engagement with them” (p. 152).  By using their own background knowledge, students can connect to the graphic novel stories and understand global issues at a deeper level.

The Gutters and Panels
Monnin (2010) describes how the gutter and panels work together to tell a complex story.  The gutter, or space between the panels, creates moment for readers to infer and use their imagination to move the story along.  Even though each panel includes its own story and plot elements, it is the gutters that glue the story together.  There are several types of panels: word, image or word and image combined.  In addition to these categories, Monnin (2010) describes eleven types of panels, including plot, character, and conflict.  Through the varied use of these panels, in partnership with word, thought, dialogue, and sound effect balloons, complex stories are told.  The reader must interact with the text, making critical connections, to comprehend and extend the story.  

Graphic Novel & Visual Literacy
According to Monnin (2010), students must activate reading strategies to comprehend graphic novel text with efficiency and fluency.  Carter (2009) states that there is a need “for authentic reading and writing experiences, textual investigations that help bridge the gap between the school world and the lived world” (p. 72).  Reading and writing graphic novels can motivate struggling and reluctant readers, support multimodal learning, and foster 21st century learning.  It is fundamental that youth develop multimodal literacies, as they are exposed to them on a daily basis.  Research shows that students experience greater success when they interact with a wide range of texts, and graphic novels offer a way to encourage multiliteracy skills. (Hughes et al., 2011)

Visual literacy is becoming more and more important, as visual communication is considered to be more powerful than words.  Graphic novels and comic books support this shift from traditional text.  “The nature of graphic novels – with frames around moments in the story and the interconnectedness of the text with the image – fits into the definition of new media.  It is reminiscent of screenplays and film.” (Hughes et al., 2011, p. 602)

Carter (2009) suggests that educators think beyond just encouraging the reading of graphic novels.  Instead, students need to be planning, writing, and illustrating graphic novels as authentic writing activities.  “By acknowledging that there is a process behind the production of comics and asking students to consider the process and even engage in it, teachers help students build crafting, composing, viewing, and visualizing skills” (Carter, 2009, p. 71).  Students hone writing skill and create stories that connect to life experiences and relevant social issues.  

Chun (2009) encourages the use of graphic novels as a means to support language learning and multiliteracies, which “work to promote learning that recognizes students’ own knowledge resources” (p.145).  Students with learning disabilities, and those in need of visual support, benefit from reading graphic novels.  Visual and spatial learners learn best from materials with a visual element; in addition to graphic novels, educators need to include graphic organizers, picture books, graphic notes, and mind mapping (Kluth, 2008).  Computer software and web 2.0 tools are available for students to write, design, and create their own graphic novel stories.  When students are encouraged to share text with peers, family, teachers, and the broader public, they grow in self-confidence, self-esteem and community belonging (Cummins, Brown, & Sawyer, 2007). 

The Dark Side of Graphic Novels
Graphic novels haven’t always been seen as educationally sound resources.  Teachers are often reluctant to utilize graphic novels.  This may be due to a lack of awareness for the current research supporting the benefits, lack of teacher testimonials, and lack of policy in regards to the use of graphic novels (Carter, 2008).  There are certainly limitations in the use of graphic novels in the classroom. Graphic novels do not function well as read-aloud books, which limits group reading.  Students lacking in confidence may balk from reading with others.  Lastly, individual reading pace may impact graphic novel work negatively.  (Hughes et al., 2011)

Critics have expressed concerns that there is a gender gap in readers, specifically that girls dislike graphic novels.  Moeller (2011) reports that graphic novel elements tend to appeal to boys more than girls.  Girls are attracted to fiction that centers on character relationships, whereas boys connect with text of a non-fiction nature that emphasizes action.  Beyond gender differences, all readers appreciate a connection with the characters.  

Additionally, it has been found that there is a negative social association with graphic novels.  Moeller (2011) explains that young people feel graphic novel reading creates a subculture of nerds.  Although both male and female students enjoy reading graphic novels, both genders expressed difficultly balancing what they find engaging and what is socially acceptable.  Students described graphic novel reading as nerdy; those that enjoy graphic novel reading in public would be ostracized and ridiculed by popular groups.  Moreover, Moeller’s research found students were concerned about judgment from teachers.  Although students were initially excited to read graphic novels, they didn’t believe their teachers would value the graphic novels over the traditional novel choices read in class. 

Despite these challenges, graphic novels are effective hooks for reluctant and struggling readers, and support visual literacy and comprehension as students make inferences across the gutters.  Hughes et al. (2011) report that students engaged in creating graphic novels were excited to complete the project.  Even those who struggled with traditional writing created meaningful stories.  All students involved demonstrated personal growth and development of multimodal literacy skills and literary elements such as plot, characterization, setting, and conflict.  

The Weight of Educating with Graphic Novels
In order to support the value of graphic novels in the classroom, educators must ensure effective and responsible use of visual text.  Not all graphic novels are appropriate for a young audience; educators must preview and evaluate resources prior to using them in the classroom.  Educators must read each page and each panel carefully, and evaluate the graphic novel in relation to curriculum standards (Carter, 2009).  

It is of utmost importance that content and readability levels are evaluated by educators before students use them.  Griffith (2010) encourages educators to evaluate the text, illustrations, and content for appropriateness and effectiveness.  In addition, consideration needs to be given to the conflict and themes represented in the graphic novel, to ensure they are appropriate for the age of the reader. In addition to evaluating resources on a professional level, Carter (2009) encourages educators to provide parents and students an opportunity to preview graphic novels and discuss the central issues before they are utilized in the classroom.  

Graphic novels can be used in the classroom to build students’ vocabulary, reading comprehension, and writing skills.  Educators need to be aware of the high-quality graphic novels available to young adults today.  Similarly, schools need to add graphic titles to their libraries and teachers need to create and share plans and articles on the subject to continue to advance the practice of teaching with graphic novels (Carter, 2007).

Conclusion
Graphic novels have received attention for their ability to motivate reluctant readers and support multiliteracies.  However, graphic novels are not only for readers who struggle.  Carter (2009) summarizes the research of Mitchell and George (1996), who found that sequential art benefits already motivated readers and supports the examination of ethical issues with gifted students.  McTaggert (2008) reminds educators that they need to teach graphic novels because “they enablethe struggling reader, motivate the reluctant one, and challenge the high-level learner” (p. 32).  In addition, graphic novels improve reading comprehension while complimenting the other core curriculum areas (McTaggert, 2008).  

Carter (2009) reports that certain populations prefer to read visual texts and students who don’t typically connect with literature will be motivated to read graphic novels.  Furthermore, students who struggle with English language literature will be able to increase comprehension through the use of images and text combined in graphic novels.  Lastly, readers who find motivation on the pages of a graphic novel will begin to read other texts, using the graphic novel as a gateway to other literature.  

Graphic novels are changing way we educate students in the Language Arts classroom, not only by changing the texts used to learn but also by challenging the traditional learning practices.  Educators need to change as well; we need to pay attention to what students are reading for enjoyment, read graphic novels ourselves, and bring appropriate texts into the classroom to interact with. 

 

References

Behler, A. (2006). Getting started with graphic novels: A guide for the beginner. Reference & User Services Quarterly, 46(2), 16-21.Carter, J. B. (2008). Comics, the Canon, and the Classroom. In N. Frey, & D. Fisher (Eds.), Teaching visual literacy: Using comic books, graphic novels, anime, cartoons, and more to develop comprehension and thinking skills (pp. 47-60). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Carter, J. B. (2009). Going Graphic. Educational Leadership, 68-72.

Carter, J. B. (2007). Transforming English with Graphic Novels: Moving toward Our “Optimus Prime”. The English Journal, 97(2), 49-53.

Chun, C. W. (2009). Critical Literacies and Graphic Novels for English-Language Learners: Teaching Maus. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 53(2), 144-153.

Cummins, J., Brown, K., & Sayers, D. (2007). Literacy, technology, and diversity: Teaching for success in changing times. Boston: Pearson.

Gillenwater, C. (2009). Lost Literacy: How Graphic Novels can Recover Visual Literacy in the Literacy Classroom. Afterimage, 37(2), 33-36.

Griffith, P. E. (2010). Graphic Novels in the Secondary Classroom and School Libraries. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 54(3), 181-189.

Hughes, J. M., King, A., Perkins, P., & Fuke, V. (2011). Adolescents and “Autobiographies”: Reading and Writing Coming-of-Age Graphic Novels. Journal of Adolescent & Adult LIteracy, 54(8), 601-612.

Kluth, P. (2008). “It Was Always the Pictures…”. In N. Frey, & D. Fisher (Eds.), Teaching visual literacy: Using comic books, graphic novels, anime, cartoons, and more to develop comprehension and thinking skills (pp. 169-188). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

McTaggert, J. (2008). Graphic Novels: The Good, The Bad, and the Ugly. In N. Frey, & D. Fisher (Eds.), Teaching visual literacy: Using comic books, graphic novels, anime, cartoons, and more to develop comprehension and thinking skills (pp. 27-46). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Moeller, R. A. (2011). “Aren’t These Boy Books?”: High School Students’ Reading of Gender in Graphic Novels. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 54(7), 476-484.

Monnin, K. (2010). Teaching graphic novels: Practical strategies for the secondary ELA classroom. Gainesville, FL: Maupin House Pub.

Wallace, C. (2001). Critical literacy in the second language classroom: Power and Control. In Negotiating critical literacies in classrooms (pp. 209-228). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Posted in Major Project, Research Paper, Technology | Tagged , , , | 7 Comments

MEDIA AS METAPHOR?

Posted on November 25, 2012 by Sheila

COMMENTARY 3: MEDIA AS METAPHOR?

Reading the last two chapters of Bolter’s Writing Space I found myself wondering what does ‘writing the self’ mean?, what would be the implications of this process? Bolter (2011) immediately suggests that
“it seems almost inevitable that literate people would come to regard their writing technologies as both a metaphor for and the principal embodiment of thought…. It may be that cultures invent and refine writing technologies at least in part in order to refashion their definitions of mind and self (p. 189).

In this very intimate relationship of language, self and technology, is technology only a metaphor? From the 1960s when McLuhan first prophesied that the ‘medium is the message’, many theorists like Postman (1992) and Heidegger (1977) have insisted that people needed to become aware of the hidden agenda of technology, its power to create unforeseen effects – this is much more than a metaphorical relationship. The clash of powerful forces characterizes the continuing evolution of social structures and self-image through the technologies of writing, and the current embodiment of the self as a “human-technology symbiont”, in Andy Clark’s (2003) words.

The transformational power of writing on human consciousness (Ong, 1982) gave rise to the reflexive consciousness, the gradual separation of self/other; the knower/known, and the rise of objective scientific knowledge (Eisenstein, 1979). In this way, the paradoxical reflection on the effects of the technologies of writing on self/mind and culture could unfold only through the use of the technologies of writing- so now with digital multimedia (Ong, p.79).

Andy Clark (2003) traces the “cognitive fossil trail” of writing technologies through writing, printing, to digital multimedia, each successively representing “mindware upgrades” as our technologies become ever more complex, multimodal and miniaturized – “cognitive upheavals in which the effective architecture of the human mind is altered and transformed” (p. 4). The self-mind, instantiated in its technologies now dwells in cyberspace – in a world of instantaneous texts, transient digital signals, globally connected to millions of other ‘selves’ where image, sound, icon, electronic writing and collaborative creations all mix and mingle in the creation of multiple meanings. In the face of this, the independent, stable author of the closed text; the Cartesian rational, cognizing self has morphed into “a fragmented and constantly changing postmodern identity” (Bolter, 2011, p. 190).

Postmodern Cyborgs

The strangeness in seeing ourselves in our technologies, describing our bodies and minds in their terms is overcome once we realize that this is not a mere metaphor, a comparison between two different things that can help us elucidate essential features of each thing. Bolter goes on to suggest that writing is a metaphor in a strong sense – an ‘identification’ of the two, intimacy of technology and mind (p. 193). The postmodern age understands that the dichotomies of self/other, nature/culture etc. no longer apply. For Clark (2003), our technologies extend and complement our senses, modes of ‘processing’, problem-solving and thinking – “the tools and culture are indeed as much determiners of our nature as products of it” – indeed, our thinking, imagining, feeling self is embodied in these technologies now – mind is not only what’s inside the “fortress of skin and skull” (p. 4,5).

How has digital technology remediated the printed word and so the writing of the self? The very concepts of text and literacy have expanded as fast as the digital technologies have brought audio, video, film, images and icons, collaborative creative spaces, instantaneous searches and connections to everyone’s fingertips. Barthes (1977) describes the implications of these new texts and the millions of readers that have become authors: “We know now that a text is not a line of words releasing a single ‘theological’ meaning (the message of the author-God) but a multi-dimensional space in which a variety of writings, none of them original, blend and clash” (par. 5) – ourselves seem to be everywhere.

http://www.publicdomainpictures.net/hledej.php?hleda=computer

http://www.public-domain-image.com/objects-public-domain-images-pictures/electronics-devices-public-domain-images-pictures/computer-components-pictures/computer-sound-card.jpg.html


The intimacy of text and technologies is in the organism’s DNA and inscribed in the circuitry itself as Haraway (1991) writes: “The silicon chip is a surface for writing; it is etched in molecular scales disturbed only by atomic noise, … Writing, power, and technology are old partners in Western stories of the origin of civilization, but miniaturization has changed our experience of mechanism. Miniaturization has turned out to be about power; small is not so much beautiful as pre-eminently dangerous” (p.153), as hard to see politically as materially.

Turkle’s (2004) research highlights impacts of digital technologies on people, and the apparent comfort with multiple identities in online virtual worlds; and children interacting with digital devices from digital pets to phones,. As Clark (2004) points out, we are already part of this invasion of the miniature in our phones, ipads, ipods, trackers, implants, nanobots: “minds and selves are spread across biological brain and non-biological circuitry” (p. 3).What kinds of cyborg selves and relationships are being written? For Haraway, it is critical to realize that machine and organism are coded texts “through which we engage in the play of writing and reading the world” (p. 152), that there is a need for creative imagination in order to write the kind of world we want, be the selves we desire, to deflect the “the final imposition of a grid of control on the planet” (p.154). And McLuhan’s (1962) question is still important: “is it not possible to emancipate ourselves from the subliminal operation of our own technologies?” (p. 246). Is the subliminal the circuitry of our bodies or the electronic structures?

References

Roland Barthes. (1977). The Death of the Author in Image, music, text, (Richard Howard, trans.). Retrieved from: http://evans-experientialism.freewebspace.com/barthes06.htm

Bolter, J. D. (2011). Writing space: Computers, hypertext, and the remediation of print (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.

Clark, A. (2004). Natural Born Cyborgs: Mind, technologies and the future of human intelligence. London: Oxford University Press. Excerpt article published by Edge/Third Culture Series. Retrieved from: http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/clark/clark_index.html

Clark, A. (2003). Natural Born Cyborgs: Mind, technologies and the future of human intelligence. London: Oxford University Press. Retrieved from:
http://it.mesce.ac.in/downloads/CriticalPerspectives/booksforreview%20CPT%20S7/Clark%20E.%20Natural-Born%20Cyborgs-%20Minds,%20Technologies,%20and%20the%20Future%20of%20Human%20Intelligence.pdf
Eisenstein, E. (1979). The printing press as an agent of change. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Haraway, D. (1991). “A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist-Feminism in the Late Twentieth Century,” in Simians, Cyborgs and Women: The Reinvention of Nature. New York, NY: Routledge, 1991), pp.149-181. Retrieved from: http://www.stanford.edu/dept/HPS/Haraway/CyborgManifesto.html

McLuhan, M. (1962). The Gutenberg galaxy: The making of typographic man. ON: University of Toronto Press.
McLuhan, M. (1969) The Playboy Interview: Marshall McLuhan. March 1969 ©, 1994 by Playboy.
Retrieved from: http://www.mcluhanmedia.com/mmclpb01.html

Ong, W. J. (2002). Orality and literacy (2nd ed.) New York, NY: Routledge.
Postman, N. (1992). Technopoly: The surrender of culture to technology. New York: Vintage Books.

Turkle, S. (2004). Whither psychoanalysis in computer culture? Psychoanalytic Psychology,
21(1), 16–30. DOI: 10.1037/0736-9735.21.1.16

Posted in Commentary 3, Uncategorized | Tagged , , , , , , , , , , , , , | 1 Comment

DREAM BIG

Posted on November 25, 2012 by Sarah Richer
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Dreaming Big on Prezi

Posted in Rip.Mix.Feed. | 2 Comments

Gatekeeper Techne

Posted on November 25, 2012 by Nicola Einarson

Artist Statement:

This project explores access to private knowledge in public spaces via quick response bar-codes, commonly known as QR code. How might digital nomads conspire and collaborate using this portal to to the digital world?

Whispered words are bounded in the space and time they are uttered, and written words are widely accessible in literate societies. Vagrants and nomads in the mid-19th century created a pictographic language, termed hobo sign, to convey functional messages with important in-group information about people and places such as safe and unsafe areas, places for work or leisure, and friendly or unfriendly neighbourhoods (Ponsler, 1972; Wanderer, 2002). Hobo sign was an in-group language meant to inform and protect group members, with simple visuals that were easily overlooked in the visual landscape (Ponsler, 1972).

τέχνη, or techne, is the Greek root of the “technology,” meaning an art, skill or craft; a technique, principle, or method by which something is achieved or created (Bolter, 2001; Techne, n.d.). Hobo sign was a form of techne congruent with its time, purpose and place. Today, techne informs the digital language of QR codes to provide private, in-group knowledge in public spaces (Levin, 2011).

QR codes in the urban landscape have quickly become a new type of iconography, remediating ambient space as a post-mechanical gate between the natural and digital worlds (Baik, 2012; Bolter, 2001). As a writing system, the data held within QR icons belies their compact form: in itself the icon may contain up to 7kB of information and may act as a direct hypertextual link to any online media (Baik, 2012; Shin et al., 2012). Free to generate using a variety of online services and readily decoded by devices such as Smartphones, QR codes constitute a fully exteriorized writing system (Bolter, 2001; Fleishman, 2010).

As our relationship and interactions with our devices are becoming increasingly nuanced, QR icons provide a symbolic reminder of the hidden digital dimension beyond the curtain of the natural world (Shin et al., 2012). Beyond the code is a private space, inaccessible to the technologically disadvantaged and unnoticed by the uninformed. As we cannot read them with our naked eye, and as they have become almost inextricably linked to commercial campaigns, judicious use of QR codes can form a guerrilla breakout of hypertext, a “covert markup scheme for urban spaces” (Bolter, 2001; Levin, 2011).

Subjective norms and behaviour towards QR codes as social media illustrate the dichotomies of public/private and interior/exterior, as bridged by the hardware in your pocket (Shin et al., 2012). The cultural ramifications of these developing social norms will only deepen as our knowledge and retrieval structures grow complicit with technological augmentation. Further removed from the visual noise of cities, the juxtaposition of their unique aesthetic in the rural visual landscape provides a strong symbolic reminder of the fluctuation and remediation of text technologies.

Please follow this path to view my exploration of QR codes in urban and rural landscapes. All photographs are available at my Flickr photostream, where you will also find the meanings hidden within the QR codes that I generated and placed. Also, please note that the audio track must be activated by the volume icon in the lower right-hand corner (it will not automatically play).

References:

Baik, S. (2012). Rethinking QR code: Analog portal to digital world. Multimedia Tools and Applications, 58 427–434. doi:10.1007/s11042-010-0686-9

Bolter, J. D. (2001). Writing space: Computers, hypertext and the remediation of print [2nd edition]. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Fleishman, G. (2010) Digital Semaphore: the 2D Tag [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://boingboing.net/2010/11/02/digital-semaphore-th.html

Levin, G. (2011). QR_Stenciler and qr_hobo_codes [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://fffff.at/qr-stenciler-and-qr-hobo-codes/

Ponsler, M. (1972). Tell a story with hobo signs. Design, 74(2) 4-7.

Richard, S. (2011). San . Retrieved from https://www.box.com/s/2x2sp58bh3y6ugkcluyf

Shin, D.H., Jung, J., & Chang, B.H. (2012). The psychology behind QR codes: User experience perspective. Computers in Human Behaviour, 28(2012) 1417-1426.

Techne. (n.d.). In Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved from http://dictionary.oed.com.

Wanderer, J. J. (2002). Embodiments of bilateral asymmetry and ‘danger’ in hobo signs. Semiotica, (1/4), 211-223.

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Addressing 21st Century Learning in a Socially Mediated Learning Environment

Posted on November 25, 2012 by Kenton Hemsing

With the inclusion of Web 2.0 technologies into the classroom, we are seeing today’s modern student struggle to manage the massive amount of information in their world, but even more we are seeing education struggling to adapt and build on this new media. The organization and gathering of information from the internet has led to the students developing a different type of literacy. This has been described by Kress (2005) as “multimodal approaches” (p. 1) and reinforces the idea that students are working in different manners to understand the world around them. The use of tags, social media, bookmarks and other commonplace Web 2.0 tools and applications allows users of internet technology the ability to sort, organize and create a digital profile that is individual and unique for every person (Alexander, 2006, p. 34). It is this type of personalized digital experience that is altering the way in which today’s students learn and interact with their learning material, their instructors and each other.

As Bolter (2001) suggests, writing allows one to reflect and explore themselves (p. 189). As the current generation of learners interact in writing practices that are more collaborative and open in nature than previous generations, one concern may be the loss of one’s own personal identity. It seems however, that the use of such media tools as tags in services such as del.icio.us (Alexander, 2006, p.34) is providing learners the ability to define themselves in their own terms. Drawing on Bolter’s (2001) conclusion on this subject it seems the use of digital mediums for communication will not threaten the identity of individual students, but rather “they participate in our ongoing cultural redefinitions of self, knowledge, and experience” (p.189). This thought from Bolter (2001) seems to emphasise that it is the definition of identity that is changing rather than personal identity itself. Digital media is redefining cultural aspects such as identity, literacy, culture and writing (Bolter, 2001, p. 204) a sentiment that is also emphasised by Wesch (2007) in his YouTube video “The Machine is Us/ing Us” (Wesch, 2007).

Today’s more socialized learning requires students to define themselves in terms of the digital technology that defines their social setting (Bolter, 2001, p. 201).  The use of Twitter, Facebook and similar social media has allowed individuals to share their personal thoughts and feelings with others around the globe; it will be the educator’s role to use these tools to reach students on a format they are comfortable with. It is these connections and the collaboration between students that has led to the creation of new knowledge and a culture of sharing. Wikipedia is an example provided by Alexander (2006, p. 36) that shows the power of this collective and collaborative creation in the digital medium. With ubiquitous access to the internet and social media services that cost nothing, or next to nothing, for students or teachers to use, we will undoubtedly see education begin to integrate this kind of shared knowledge and learning.

With students owning their own personal wireless devices and being able to access the internet in countless numbers of places, the creation of their digital identity remains constant and continuous. These devices also provide students and educators with the ability to constantly be interacting not only with each other, but with the information about the world around them. Wesch (2008) describes this in a talk given at the Library of Congress, where he describes this interaction as “user generated organization”, “user generated content” and “user generated knowledge” (Wesch, 2008). An educator’s roll now becomes to lead students to understand how to sort, analyze and create understanding from all the information they find on the internet. This is how 21st century learning skills need to be addressed in the social context of learning today.  We can link this to the New London Group’s (1996) idea of “design” (p.65) as the meaning of literacy, and thereby learning, is changed by those that use it. This links well with Wesch’s (2007) idea of “form and content” and how digital media is able to alter each one separately to achieve a desired outcome. This redefinition of societal norms through how individuals use new media used by individuals has had an impact on not only the communication between of individuals but also their learning.

In conclusion, the adaptation of new media into lives of students has created a major change in the way students interact not only with each other but with the content in which they are submersed. The digital environment has become a “mediascape” (Wesch, 2008), and has grown to include interactions as well as information. This includes the many different methods that users are able to interact with each other and the form and content of the media they are involved with. As the use of Web 2.0 media continues to link people together, education will need to adapt to fit the needs of 21st Century learners in their desire to be connected. This includes digital writing, video and audio, to bring students together in a manner that enhances their understanding and learning about the world around them. The combining of these forms pushes onto users a new definition of literacy in that one must be efficient at navigating all forms of media into a combined “hypermedia” (Bolter, 2001, p. 155) that will truly define a new generation of learning.

 

References

Alexander, B. (2006) Web 2.0: A new wave of innovation for teaching and  learning? Educause Review, 41(2), 34-44.  Accessed online March 2, 2009. http://www.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ERM0621.

Bolter, J.D. (2001). Writing space: Computers, hypertext, and the remediation of print[2nd edition]. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum

Kress, G. R. (2005). Gains and losses: New forms of texts, knowledge, and learning. Computers and Composition; Special Issue on the Influence of Gunther Kress’ Work, 22(1), 5-22.

New London Group. (1996). A pedagogy of multiliteracies: Designing social futures. Harvard Educational Review (Vol. 66, pp. 60–92).

Wesch, M. (2006). The Machines are Us/ing Us. Retrived from http://youtu.be/NLlGopyXT_g

Wesch, M. (2008). An Anthroprological Introduction to Youtube. Library of Congress lecture. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TPAO-lZ4_hU&feature=share&list=PL01C06F0B5E2B9EE4

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The Relationship Between Text and Animated GIFs

Posted on November 25, 2012 by maybacon

Hello everyone!

Here is a link to my final project, a look at animated GIFs as an important component of Web 2.0 culture (even following the propagation of Flash) and an interesting partner to hypertext.

(And don’t worry, there’s only one GIF of my overly-eager face on the project site).

Hope you enjoy it as much as I did!

May

 

Posted in Major Project, Technology, Text | 4 Comments

The multiple senses of reading

Posted on November 25, 2012 by learle

The multiple senses of reading

Commentary 3

Not too long ago, I had a discussion with my students (grades 10-12) about books and movies. We were discussing the fact that we always prefer the book – the written text form, but generally want to see the movie – the visual screen form. There were comments about how they enjoyed creating their own images from the words they read, but enjoyed seeing the film version of the book to see how someone else envisioned the same words. Others said that they never want to see the film of the book they read because they do not want their own interpretations altered. Even though our students are growing up in a highly stimulating time filled with text, sound, images, and film, all modes of reading are still relevant. Reading is not limited to deciphering words in a text. When I place my mouse over the word ‘reading’ in the former sentence and right click for a list of synonyms, Office provides me with this list: interpretation, understanding, analysis, construing, appraisal, evaluation, impression, and sense. Therefore, when I am teaching my students how to read, I am (or should be) teaching how to understand, analyze, evaluate, and so on. These actions are not limited to text. Thus, it is important for teachers today to embrace all modes of representation, whether textual or visual, in order to guide our students to become constructive citizens in this digital world.

J. D. Bolter and G. Kress both contend that we are witnessing a decline in textual modes of representation due to a rise of visual modes of representation. I would agree to an extent with their arguments. However, I believe that it is not necessarily a decline in textual modes of representation but a decline in printed modes of representation. Bolter commented on how “[Graphics] seem to bubble out of the prose and appear before our eyes, transforming us from readers into viewers. This process … is renewed for us by the techniques of animation and interactivity in digital media” (2001, p. 56). This observation leads to the fact that media in the 21st century is digital as opposed to traditional printed, hand-delivered information. Visual modes of representation have been around for many years. Newspapers, which began as political pamphlets in Europe during the mid- to late 14th century, have become a multimodal form of representation including text, images, and colour today (Weber, 2006). The billboard, which originates from the 1830s, is another form of representation that tends to be more visual than textual, but both nonetheless, and has evolved into digital networks, which the OAAA first installed in 2005 (OAAA, 2012). According to the OAAA, “Outdoor advertising can trace its lineage back to the earliest civilizations. Thousands of years ago, the Egyptians employed a tall stone obelisk to publicize laws and treaties” (2012). It is important to note that the ancient Egyptian language was a system of hieroglyphics – a language that was visual. Therefore, it seems that the concept of reading, and its modes of representation, has gone through a cyclical transformation of remediation.

Reading is a diverse and complex skill for one to learn due to its multimodal forms of representation. Kress explains that reading should be thought of as “taking meaning and making meaning from many sources of information, from many different sign-systems” (2005, p.17). Therefore, in order for our students to survive in this multimodal time, they must learn to use many of their senses to read life. The digital environment of today allows people to read with their eyes, ears, nose, touch, and even their tongue. Think of the many magazines that have perfume or, lotion samples that they can smell and touch, or the concept of scratch and sniff advertising. In the digital world of iPads and smartphones, reading leans toward the combination of the eye and ear where people watch and listen to videos. Reading, or its many available synonyms, requires us to take and make meaning in ways that our ancestors never would have dreamt.

Because reading today requires people to be multimodal, education is undergoing a paradigm shift. In B.C., “the current provincial curriculum includes more than 164 discrete learning outcomes for grade two” alone, which includes reading outcomes (B.C. Ministry of Education, winter 2012). This is one reason that B.C. has decided to re-think the curriculum. Many of the courses taught in the secondary levels require our students to read something and then write or talk about it. How can we expect our students to do well in school if they do not know how to read various types of texts? Dave Gregg, E-Learning Officer of the Learning Division of the Ministry of Education, explains how the Ministry of Education wants “to identify the technological knowledge and skills learner need to be fully prepared for 21stcentury learning environments and workplaces” (2012, p. 21). They defined digital literacy as

“the interest, attitude and ability of individuals to appropriately use digital technology and communication tools to access, manage, integrate, analyze and evaluate information, construct new knowledge, and create and communicate with others in order to participate effectively in society” (as cited in Gregg, Winter 2012, p.21).

This definition is important because it recognizes the fact that literacy in this digital world is different and that reading, a key component of literacy, now requires learners to do more than turn a page in a book or a newspaper. Therefore, if the students of tomorrow are to participate effectively in society, teachers need to embrace all modes of representation – to use the multiple senses of reading.

References:

B.C. Ministry of Education. (Winter 2012). Transforming BC’s curriculum to enable personalized learning. Learn: The Magazine of BC Education, (3), p. 12-13.

Bolter, J.D. (2001). Writing space: Computers, hypertext, and the remediation of print [2nd edition]. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Gregg, D. (Winter 2012). Developing digital literacy standards. Learn: The Magazine of BC Education, (3), p. 21.

Kress, G. (2005). Gains and losses: New forms of texts, knowledge and learning. Computers and Composition, 22(1), p. 5-22. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compcom.2004.12.004

Outdoor Advertising Association of America (OAAA). (2012). History of Outdoor. Retrieved from http://www.oaaa.org/about/HistoryofOutdoor.aspx

Weber, J. (2006). Strassburg, 1605: The origins of the newspaper in Europe. German History 24(3), p 387–412. Retrieved from doi: 10.1093/0266355406gh380oa

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Popping it with Popplet Part 2

Posted on November 25, 2012 by kstackhouse

As promised here is the continuation of my Popplet on Web 2.0. The popplet will remain open if anyone would like to join in the future and continue adding resources to this tool. Thank you again to those that were able to contribute.

http://popplet.com/app/#/585219

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Yes, that’s me in a tuxedo.

Posted on November 25, 2012 by Eric Gearey

It’s a little old, I made it a summer or two ago, but thought it might play well here.

I submitted this video to the BCTF last year during the BC Teacher/Government standoff stuff as part of a competition and it’s made the rounds of my local school district as well.

I’m quite proud of the video and have had several positive comments about it. Recently, I posted it to our classroom blog in an attempt to let parents in on “who I am” or at least, “how I teach”.

Anyways, here’s the video.

[youtube]https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kz1djd6amiw.[/youtube]
I can’t describe how much fun it was to make. I’m sure I’d change a thousand things with it given the chance, but it certainly rekindled my interest in film and editing.

Cheers.

– Eric.

Posted in Uncategorized | 1 Comment

Typeface: The new learning assistant?

Posted on November 25, 2012 by Ginelle Stutt

When beginning this project, I did not fully grasp how something like typeface could incite passionate debate. I had considered font selection as a message carrier, certainly, but I underestimated how important typography is to how information is processed, particularly in an educational context. What became salient is that visual text, ensconced in fastidiously designed font, envelopes and manipulates the mind in ways minimally understood, but intensely researched. For the sake of this paper, the terms ‘font’ and ‘typeface’ will be used synonymously as the distinctions are perceived by many as minimal (Ambrose & Harris, 2006, p. 40). The primary role of font is to convey a message. Designer Emil Ruder says it best: “Typography has one plain duty before it and that is to convey information in writing” (Ambrose & Harris, p. 38). Jay Bolter discusses the ‘natural correspondence’ pictures have in what they communicate (2001, p. 58), and font styles too embody subtle, organic visual messages. Designer Rick Poynor reminds the unsuspecting that type speaks to us relentlessly and subtly informs the basis for how we understand the visual world (Hustwit, 2007). English author and typography super fan Simon Garfield equally respects the complexity of typefaces. He cares about their context, use, and abuse, and reminds readers that selected typeface communicates a clear message, whether humans are aware of this or not; graphic designer Neville Brody argues, “The choice of typeface is the primary weapon, if you want, in that communication” (Hustwit, 2007). How people choose to present text embodies a type of liberation not to be underestimated (Garfield, 2010. p. 13). Font styles, mechanical in how they are constructed, share poignant similarities with humans. They communicate constantly, emitting messages that can be construed as elegant, simple, fancy, obnoxious,  quiet, gracious, inappropriate, loud, passive, erotic, and more. As you should note, this messaging is highly subjective. Typeface is complex and simple, simultaneously; it rests silently on a surface, but acts on us all. If this is the case, surely typeface is more than an aesthetic feature and can provide service within an educational context. Research will suggest that typeface construction can be used in many ways to assist with cognitive functions like semantic decoding.  More specifically, if typeface impacts how text is cognitively experienced, to what extent can different fonts help those with a learning disability such as dyslexia process text more effectively?

Before continuing, please take a few minutes to explore terminology related to typeface design. It is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss typeface anatomy and historical development in-depth, however it is interesting to reflect on how lettering structure has changed through the millennia. Creating font from physical means is clearly preceded by physical development of the written word. The first examples of ‘true writing’ were developed by Mesopotamian culture in approximately 3500 BC (Diringer 1953; Gelb 1963, as cited in Ong, 1982, p. 82-83). From that point, writing systems spread among cultures with relatively few people having skills needed to beset writing surfaces with culturally significant items. As Walter Ong notes, early word and pictorial shapes were birthed through intention as scribes had to physically commit to the process of ‘writing something down’, an action we now barely register in terms of effort expenditure. Before papyrus and paper was invented, writing took place on anything from animal skin to tree bark (Ong, p. 93). Regardless of surface, core cognitive processes like memory, reading and learning developed with increased exposure to, and interaction with, pictorial and written texts. As writing systems developed, so too did innovations about how to present and distribute text.

The printing press and typeface emergence

Pivotal to typeface development was German inventor Johannes Gutenberg’s 15th century printing press, the earliest ‘playground’ for design.  He wished for printed books to appear handwritten, and so developed the first font, an early Gothic lettering.

Figure 1: Excerpt from ‘The Gutenberg Bible’; first use of moveable type [http://www.flickr.com/photos/nlscotland/5371921755/]

 Financial gain was one of Gutenberg’s primary goal with the press, and little could he have known how the aesthetic element of typeface would impact learning processes. As Bolter notes, Gutenberg ‘inaugurated’ a new age, one of print, choice, and creativity (2011, p. 8). Important to consider is how intention behind writing changed due to this technology. Emphasis shifted from what to write down and where, to how what was written should be presented. The Industrial Revolution and progress in mechanization further impacted typeface development, allowing for a wider range of styles to proliferate (Ambrose & Harris, p. 20).This shift is what situates typography in a relevant context as educationalists and psychologists learn more about how simple design choices can impact information processing. This brief historical glance at the shift from written to print technology in no way captures the rich, complex history of how typeface emerged from rudimentary technology, but this brief clip provides a visual for how Gutenberg’s early Gothic font served as a starting point for more modern styles.

Dyslexia: some facts

In modern education, typeface has received increased attention due to its potential as a learning tool. Fonts developed rapidly in the past 600 years, particularly after computerized design programs emerged, allowing professionals and amateurs alike to experiment with different styles. Relevant to this discussion are two major typeface families: serif and sans serif font types, meaning that a structural component at the bottom or top of the stem either elongates or truncates a visual aspect. Research will show how small adjustments to leading, bowl thickness, and stem length can simplify how dyslexics process visual information. 

According to the National Centre for Learning Disorders, dyslexia is a language processing disorder, one that has organic roots in the brain as visual information is processed differently in the left hemisphere, and in terms of how information is relayed by the thalmus compared with those of unchallenged readers. Dyslexia is reported to be the most common form of learning disability in special education programs, affecting one if five people (Flynn & Rahbar, 1994, as cited in Sykes, 2004, p. 1). The dyslexic brain will often experience difficulty recognizing letter orientation and order. Symptoms may take form of semantic substitutions and inversions, for example ‘glass’ might be used instead of ‘cup’, and ‘dog’ and ‘god’ may be confused. Dyslexics often have trouble recognizing mirrored letters like ‘p’ and ‘q’ or ‘b’ and ‘d’; letters can physically rotate on the page and appear in three dimensional form (Sklar & Hanley, 1972, p. 160; Nalewicki, 2011). Reading rates are slower, spelling is problematic, and simple class activities like reading aloud can take on nightmarish proportion. To obtain a slight sense of dyslexic experience, please click here.  Interestingly, researchers report that dyslexia is prevalent across cultures and socioeconomic backgrounds, although prevalence in Japan, curiously, is significantly lower than Western countries’ reported rates, possibly due to the lack of mirror-figure symbols in KANA script (Makita 1968, as cited in Sklar & Hanley, 1972; Sykes, 2008). Such was the case with Sklar and Hanley’s proposal for further experimentation into how multi-fontal alphabets may assist dyslexic reading, the mid 20th century investigations called for increased research funding into how font types and alphabetic presentation could help with dyslexic complications. In a broader social context, this movement paralleled increased computer use in the workplace, and, importantly, in schools.  By the turn of the 21st century, Scottish researchers Peter Gregor and Alan Newell’s difficulty in defining dyslexia reflects complex understanding of such an individualized neurobiological dysfunction. They refer to it as a ‘language disorder which is very difficult to define…The fact that dyslexia has had no single clear definition is that the term has been, and in some cases still is, loosely applied to many varying cases of word dysfunction’ (2000, p. 85). Implicit in this quasi-definition is how difficult it is to treat a cognitive disability that manifests differently in individuals. Thankfully, modern concurrent research illustrates that adjusted typeface can positively impact how dyslexics process written text. 

Typography assists learning

In the mid 1950s, Miles Tinker, a psychologist from the University of Minnesota, conducted one of the most significant early bodies of work that aimed to understand how typography and other environmental factors assist with reading functions. He investigated how altered font could affect reading speeds related to eye movements, and he examined how a reader`s physical position and accessibility to light could impact reading rates (Sutherland, 1989, p. 11-12). Although focused primarily on readability and legibility and not on how meaning was constructed, Tinker’s work hallmarked the need to scrutinize how typeface choice could impact a reader on a neurobiological level (Brumberger, 2003, p. 224). Years later, organizations like ReadHowYouWant advocate simple adjustments to font size and spacing to increase readability for general readers, and those with learning disabilities (Beidler, 2000, p. 3). However, sample sizes used in Beidler’s related research are small (n=14), and do not generalize beyond a small target population. Compiling qualitative data was paramount for understanding lived dyslexic experience, but replicable experimental work was and still is needed to infer direct cause and effect around which typeface style works best for dyslexic readers’ processing efficiency.

Targeted font design

Research indicates that typeface appropriateness is partly determined by the qualities shared with the ideas being presented (Bolter, p. 67; Brumberger, p. 225). This is interesting to consider in context of typeface innovation – if dyslexic readers struggle with qualitatively similar letters, it is intuitive that differentiating these aspects of design could assist with the decoding process. In 2003, Dutch designer and dyslexic reader, Natascha Frensch, designed a font specific to this differentiation. As of May 2012, her Read Regular typeface is now licensed to a Dutch publishing house Zwijsen, which has renamed it Zwijsen Dyslexiefont. Regardless of ownership, it is clear that careful adjustments in leading, or the vertical space between lines of type, can help a reader distinguish characters. Ascenders and descenders are lengthened for clarity, and the overall presentation is diversified. Historically, typeface design advocates uniformity however in the case of dyslexic reading, it appears this integral hallmark of good design – uniformity – could actually be contributing to symptoms of dyslexic reading.

 Christian Boer, a 30 year old dyslexic graphic designer, released Dyslexie, a font that embodies these minor adjustments and inconsistencies within form that would likely enflame tempers of traditionalist designers, but simplifies and anchors lettering for dyslexics.  Boer’s research stems from the University of Twente in The Netherlands where his success with dyslexic font design emerged from graduate work.

Figure 2: Dyslexie font  [http://www.flickr.com/photos/dmiwench/6284911092/]Granted, methodology is imperfect as Boer partially built a knowledge base from an opportunity sample of dyslexic colleagues, however what better way to understand dyslexic needs than to run qualitative research on a dyslexic sub-population. Boer provides little information about diagnostic procedures or the severity of dyslexia his font may serve, but he makes no claim that his font is curative – it is meant to function as an assistive tool, and qualitative results suggests this is the case. Despite flaws in methodology or sampling procedures, it is clear that typeface design offers one more tool in the kit for how to assist dyslexic readers.

 Conclusion

As information processors, humans have long been using visual cues like letter size and ink colour to maintain orientation within texts (Bolter, p. 66-67). Visuals techniques for text de-coding have clearly evolved through print technology, and the democratization of alphabetized literacy that Walter Ong speaks of in Orality and Literacy can easily be furthered to include more dyslexic readers if academic institutions are willing to accommodate typeface innovations (Ong, p. 88). Learning support teachers world wide use a plethora of well-researched and effective strategies to help dyslexic students decode text, however in the age of digitized reading, schools should take note that emergent and targeted typeface design offer a relatively inexpensive and readily available helping hand in the process. Experimental laboratory and field research must be conducted with larger, cross cultural samples to lend credibility, reliability and external validity to claims that typography can assist with dyslexic learning, but a hopeful starting point for this exploration has clearly been established.  

 

Works Cited

Ambrose, G. & Harris, P. (2011). The Fundamentals of Typography. [2nd edition]. Lausanne, Switzerland: AVA Publishing SA.

Beidler, P. (not found) Optimized Typesetting by ReadHowYouWant. Retrieved from: http://www.peytonstafford.com/images/ReadHowYouWant_White_Paper.pdf

Bolter, J (2001). Writing space: Computers, hypertext, and the remediation of print [2nd edition]. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Garfield, S. (2010). Just My Type. London, England: Profile Books.

Gregor, P & Newell, A. (2000). An Empirical Investigation of Ways in Which Some of the Problems Encountered by Some Dyslexics May be Alleviated using Computer Techniques. Assets ’00 Proceedings of the fourth international ACM conference on Assistive technologies, 85-91. Doi: 10.1145/354324.354347

Hustwit, G., Siegel, S., Geissbuhler, L., Swiss Dots Ltd., & Plexifilm (Firm). (2007). Helvetica: A documentary film. S.l.: Plexifilm.

Moody, S. (2004). Dyslexia: A Teenager’s Guide. London, England: Vermilion, Random House.

Nalewicki, J. (2011). Bold Stroke: New font Helps Dyslexics Read. Scientific American. Retrieved from: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=new-font-helps-dyslexics-read

Ong, W. (1982) Orality and Literacy. New York, New York: Methuen & Co. Ltd.

Sklar, B & Hanley, J. (1972). A Multi-Fontal Alphabet for Dyslexic Children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 5, 160-164. Doi:10.1177/002221947200500306 1972.03.005

Sutherland, S. (1989) The Forgotten research of Miles Albert Tinker. Retrieved from: http://www.ohio.edu/visualliteracy/JVL_ISSUE_ARCHIVES/JVL9%281%29/JVL9%281%29_pp.10-25.pdf

Sykes, J. (2008). Dyslexia, Design and Reading: Making Print Work for College Students with Dyslexia, A Qualitative Interaction Design Study (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from: ProQuest LLC (UMI: 3305924)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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